Contamination and Impact

Mines

Western Sahara is significantly contaminated with mines as a result of earlier armed conflict between the government of Morocco and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguía el Hamra and Río de Oro (Polisario). A berm (defensive earthen wall) of more than 2,000km in length was built during conflict in the 1980s, and remained after the 1991 cease-fire between Morocco and Polisario. Moroccan troops laid antipersonnel and antivehicle mines in and around the berms. According to the British NGO Action on Armed Violence (AOAV), Western Sahara is one of the most heavily mined territories in the world.[1]

An AOAV-managed survey concluded at the end of 2008 covering the area east of the berm identified 37 mined areas; an additional mined area was identified in 2010.[2] The total suspected mined area covered 134km² as of March 2011.[3] Further survey is still required in the 5km buffer zone to the east of the berm. Available information has indicated that the areas around the berm are the most seriously affected, although mines have also been laid around settlements and have been reported in and around waterholes, well-used roads, and paths.[4]

AOAV began working on the first of the 38 confirmed mined areas in June 2012. This “nuisance” mined area is estimated to cover 74km² and clearance was expected to take at least one year. With existing capacity, clearance was estimated by AOAV to require more than 20 years of work.[5]

Cluster munition remnants

There remains a significant problem of cluster munition remnants in Western Sahara, although clearance was expected to be completed by the end of 2012. Due to the discovery of additional cluster strike areas, clearance was not completed by mid-July 2013 as had been planned, with a total of 30 known cluster munition strike sites remaining.[6] AOAV had identified three previously  unrecorded areas in June 2012.[7] The AOAV-managed survey determined that unexploded submunitions pose the greatest threat to people and animals.[8]

Other explosive remnants of war

There is also contamination from many other explosive remnants of war. The AOAV-managed survey found one area containing unused ammunition and identified 433 spot clearance tasks.[9] Of these, 233 explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) spot tasks had been completed as of March 2011.[10] The remainder (outside the buffer zone close to the berm) were cleared by the end of 2011.[11]

Mine Action Program

The UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) manages a Mine Action Coordination Center (MACC),[12] which was upgraded from a mine action “cell” in February 2008.

Land Release

Land release is conducted by Polisario and local staff under the supervision of AOAV in areas of Western Sahara east of the berm. AOAV conducted only battle area clearance (BAC) and EOD in 2012, as it did the two previous years.[13] Unlike earlier years, it used a combination of manual and mechanical clearance techniques following the acquisition of a Medium MineWolf by the operator Mechem in 2011.[14]

Release of cluster munition contaminated areas in 2012

In 2012, AOAV cleared 72 cluster strike areas through visual subsurface and instrument-assisted clearance over a total area of 2.87km². A total of 320 submunitions were destroyed.[15] In 2011, AOAV cleared 72 areas contaminated by cluster munitions over some 7.8km².[16]

Clearance of cluster munition remnants in 2012[17]

SHA = suspected hazardous area

Quality management

AOAV uses its own standing operating procedures, working in accordance with a memorandum of understanding (MOU) it signed with MINURSO and in accordance with a contract of work for the UN Mine Action Service (through the UN Office for Project Services), as well as in accordance with a MOU with Polisario.[18] BAC quality management is conducted by the AOAV operations officer, the technical advisor, and the chief of operations, as well as by MINURSO.[19] The MACC operations/quality assurance officer visits AOAV teams every two weeks and conducts quality assurance/quality control of their operations.[20]

Demining accidents

No demining accidents were reported in 2012. The last reported accident occurred on 19 June 2011 when one AOAV deminer was killed.[21]

Casualties and Victim Assistance

Victim assistance commitments

Western Sahara has a significant number of landmine survivors, cluster munition victims, and survivors of other explosive remnants of war (ERW) who are in need. The Polisario authorities signed Geneva Call’s “Deed of Commitment” in 2005 which obliges them to support humanitarian mine action activities, such as victim assistance, among other commitments.[1]

Casualties Overview

In 2012, the Monitor identified 40 mine/ERW casualties in Western Sahara.[2] Most (31) casualties were civilians, including two boys. Child casualties represented 13% of all civilian casualties for which the age was known.[3] There were nine casualties among security forces. There were no confirmed female casualties.[4]

The majority of casualties (35) were in Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara (west of the berm[5]) with the remainder occurring in Polisario-controlled Western Sahara, east of the berm. This was similar in percentage to 2011 when eight of the 11 casualties identified occurred in Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara.

The 35 casualties identified in 2012 represented a significant increase from the 11 casualties reported in 2011, though similar to the 25 identified in 2010.[6] Casualty data is not comprehensive, making it difficult to determine clear casualty trends.

The total number of mine/ERW casualties in Western Sahara is not known, though it was estimated in 2011 that there had been some 2,500 since 1975.[7] Morocco reported a total of 2,536 mine/ERW casualties, 831 persons killed, and 1,705 injured, from 1975 to the end of 2012; it was not known how many of these occurred in Morocco versus Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara.[8] As of July 2013, the Saharawi Association of Landmine Victims (ASAVIM) had collected detailed information on 919 mine/ERW and cluster munition victims in and around the Rabouni refugee camps on the Algerian border with Western Sahara.[9]

Cluster Munition Casualties

As of July 2013, ASAVIM identified 177 casualties of cluster munition remnants occurring between 1975 and 2012.[10]

Victim Assistance

As of July 2013, ASAVIM had collected data on 919 landmine and cluster munition victims as well as 372 other war victims and persons with disabilities in Polisario-controlled Western Sahara.[11] From 1975 to the end of 2012, Morocco has reported a total of 1,705 mine/ERW survivors.[12] It is likely that most of these occurred in Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara.[13]

Victim Assistance since 1999

Victim assistance in Polisario-controlled Western Sahara, extremely limited since monitoring began in 1999, is worsened by the fact that most survivors live in extreme poverty in refugee camps. A lack of public transportation in the region made it very difficult for survivors to access the limited services available. With the start of the Action on Armed Violence (AOAV) mine/ERW clearance program in 2006, AOAV began providing emergency aid and transportation in Polisario-controlled Western Sahara to complement a similar service provided by the UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) in Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara. However, given the vast and remote territory, emergency response and transportation remained inadequate.

The Chehid Cherif National Center for Mine and War Victims consistently provided basic medical care for war victims, including landmine survivors. The center also offered vocational training programs (when funding allowed) though demand for services consistently exceeded supply. All medical services in refugee camps were free but facilities lacked adequately trained staff and resources. Rehabilitation and prosthetics improved in 2008 and continued through 2012 with the start of an ICRC-supported program to the Rabouni rehabilitation center, serving Saharawi refugees from Polasario-controlled Western Sahara; before this, obtaining access to physical rehabilitation was virtually impossible as no services were available for those living in nearby refugee camps. International technical and financial assistance for physical rehabilitation decreased in 2011 as the ICRC Special Fund for the Disabled ceased providing support to the rehabilitation center in Laâyoune in Morocco-controlled Western Sahara.

There was an acute lack of economic opportunities for survivors; psychological support in the camps was insufficient to address the needs of the population. ASAVIM was founded in 2005 to collect information about survivors and their needs, refer survivors to available services, and advocate on their behalf. There was no government coordination of victim assistance by Morocco or the Polisario government, but there was regular coordination between the Chehid Cherif Center and ASAVIM in the refugee camps and in Polasario-controlled Western Sahara.

Victim Assistance in 2012

With support from AOAV, the capacity of ASAVIM increased significantly in 2012, enabling the network to develop and undertake a comprehensive needs assessment, launch an income-generating project with survivor cooperatives, and raise the profile of its survivor-led advocacy activities. This work complemented ASAVIM’s ongoing efforts to provide peer support and referrals to survivors living in Polisario-controlled Western Sahara. The ICRC sustained its critical support for physical rehabilitation services, including its referral system and outreach visits established in 2011.

Assessing victim assistance needs

Between February and June 2012, ASAVIM, with support from AOAV and in cooperation with the Polisario government, assessed the needs of survivors and other persons with disabilities in Polisario-controlled Western Sahara. ASAVIM members interviewed 838 survivors and 85 family members of survivors.[14] Survey questionnaires included questions on personal information, details of the incident and the injury, services received to date, current medical, prosthetic, rehabilitative and socioeconomic needs, as well as educational background and preferred areas of economic activity.[15] The Ministry of Defence shared their database on veterans with disabilities for inclusion in the survey.[16]

In order to improve victim assistance planning, coordination, and the provision of services, the results of the survey were shared with representatives of the Polisario government, including the ministries of social affairs, health, education, and cooperation, and also with survivors, the ICRC, and other international organizations such as the Spanish Red Cross, UNHCR, and MINURSO.[17] ASAVIM used the results in the designing of, and as baseline data for, the provision of income-generating support to survivors.[18] Based on the results of the survey, the ICRC sought further cooperation with the survey team to improve outreach to survivors.[19]

After completion of the survey, ASAVIM established an ongoing mechanism to collect, manage, and share data on the needs of survivors.

No efforts to assess survivor needs by Morocco were identified in 2012.

Victim assistance coordination

While Western Sahara has no specific victim assistance coordination body or mechanism, the Polisario authorities supported the Chehid Cherif Landmine and War Victims Center and basic medical care.[20]

Survivor participation and inclusion

Survivors, through ASAVIM, coordinated regularly with the Chehid Cherif Center and relevant Polisario government institutions in order to refer survivors to available services.[21] ASAVIM was involved in the design and the implementation of the ongoing needs assessment.[22] ASAVIM and its survivor members also implemented an economic inclusion program, provided peer support, and carried out advocacy activities.[23]

Service accessibility and effectiveness

Victim assistance activities[24]

Emergency and ongoing medical care

MINURSO staff provided emergency response following mine incidents in Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara, while AOAV provided the same service in Polisario-controlled Western Sahara.[25] UNHCR’s medical unit also provided emergency medical services and casualty evacuation.[26]

However, as in previous years, it was reported in 2012 that emergency response times for people involved in mine/ERW incidents in remote areas could be several hours or even days, resulting in some casualties dying from their wounds before receiving medical attention.[27] Morocco reported having modern medical facilities where survivors could access services for free.[28]

Ongoing healthcare remained very limited and treatment for complex injuries or chronic conditions is scarce and in some cases non-existent. The ASAVIM/AOAV needs assessment found that 71% of survivors were in need of some form of medical attention and at least a quarter could not access the assistance they needed where they lived.[29]

Physical rehabilitation, including prosthetics

The ICRC-run Rabouni Rehabilitation Center within the Chehid Cherif Center continued to be the only center serving refugee populations in Polisario-controlled Western Sahara. Necessary maintenance and expansion to the physical infrastructure of the center was postponed due to a lack of funds, estimated to cost approximately US$5,000.[30]

The ICRC maintained its referral network with area hospitals and its outreach visits to refugee camps, increasing its overall number of beneficiaries significantly (by 57%) and the number of survivors who benefited (by 31%).[31] Among the survivors who were surveyed in 2012, 57% indicated the need for prosthetics or other mobility aids.[32]

Economic Inclusion

In August 2012, ASAVIM launched a grant program to support income-generating projects by survivor cooperatives. ASAVIM established a national project commission to monitor the implementation of the project. The commission included representatives of victim assistance stakeholders, including ministries of social affairs and women’s promotion; cooperation; education; and defence. Cooperatives received training in project and business planning. As of September 2013, 27 cooperatives had received support for their business proposals.[33]

A limited number of vocational training and income-generating programs were available to refugees in the Rabouni area through the Polisario government and international organizations, such as UNHCR, including some targeting persons with disabilities.[34] However, survivors based in refugee camps were not aware of such programs.[35] The Moroccan Red Crescent paid the school fees of eight children of mine victims in Morocco-controlled Western Sahara.[36]

Just 15% of survivors surveyed by ASAVIM received very limited financial assistance, in the form of a pension for persons with severe disabilities referred to as “the encouragement,” from Polisario authorities.[37] Survivors in Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara were entitled to financial assistance from the Moroccan government; however it was estimated in 2010 that about one in six survivors lacked the documentation needed to access this assistance which was deemed insufficient to meet basic needs.[38] Morocco reported having government programs for the economic and social reinsertion of these survivors.[39]

Psychological support

ASAVIM increased the availability of psychological assistance by providing peer support, along with information on where to access services, while undertaking the needs assessment. ASAVIM continued to provide such support on an ongoing basis through its office and during meetings of members.[40] Psychological assistance was also available through the Rabouni hospital, but many survivors did not know about these services and reported a complete absence of professional psychological support.[41]

Laws and policies

There is no existing legislation in Polisario-controlled Western Sahara protecting the rights of mine/ERW victims or persons with disabilities. In 2012, ASAVIM and the Network for Investigation on the Effects of Landmines and the Berm in Western Sahara (Red de Estudios sobre efectos de Minas terrestres y Muros en el Sahara Occidental, REMMSO) advocated for the introduction of such legislation and called for increased interministerial coordination.[42] In February 2013, the Polisario authorities offered support for the initiative and began taking steps towards enacting such legislation.[43]

The Territory of Western Sahara receives support for mine action from funds assessed from the UN General Assembly (UNGA) for mine action as part of the UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) peacekeeping operation, while donors make direct contributions to operators. Since 2008, funding for mine action through MINURSO (US$6,178,450) has accounted for 58% of all mine action funding for Western Sahara. In 2012, peacekeeping-assessed funds for mine action were $2,600,000, an increase of almost 50%.[1] At the same time, in 2012 international assistance declined by 73% with Norway and Switzerland as the sole donors.[2]

Despite the large fluctuations in assessed mine action funds from the UNGA and the decrease in support from international donors, total funding declined by less than 10% in 2012.

International contributions: 2012[3]

Summary of international contributions: 2008–2012[4]