Beginning with Marshal Tito’s death in 1980
and accelerated with the collapse of the former Soviet Union, the Socialist
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) divided into five different countries:
Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
(Serbia and Montenegro), and the Republic of Macedonia.
These Balkan States have a complex history that extends beyond the scope of
this report. For Bosnia and Herzegovina, however, background on events, armies,
and peace treaties is needed as each have influenced the use and clearance of
antipersonnel landmines in the country. The information is provided to help the
reader appreciate the challenges that face individuals living and working in
this multi-ethnic country controlled by two separate entity
governments.[1]
In March 1992, Bosnia and Herzegovina declared its independence from the
SFRY. Days later, fighting broke out and led to a war lasting over three and a
half years. Armed hostilities officially ended in December 1995. During this
period, nearly three million people were displaced and over 250,000 are reported
dead or missing.[2] UNICEF
estimates war wounded at approximately 170,000
people.[3] The war destroyed
families, communities, infrastructure, and left the country littered with
landmines and unexploded ordnance.
For the most part, hostilities during the war were conducted by three
distinct armies: the Bosnian government army (ARBiH), the Bosnian Croat army
(HVO) and the Bosnian Serb army (VRS). In the SFRY, all men were required to
complete one year of military service in the Yugoslav People’s Army (JNA).
It can be assumed that many soldiers involved in the war had prior military
training. JNA military doctrine relied heavily on the use of mines as a
deterrent against invasion. Though engineering units were primarily responsible
for these activities, all soldiers were taught mine warfare doctrine and
techniques (laying, recording and neutralizing).
In March and May 1994, a peace agreement was mediated between the warring
Bosnian Croats and the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and signed in
Washington and Vienna. The Washington Agreement created the Federation of Bosnia
and Herzegovina. Under the agreement, the combined territory held by the Croat
and Bosniak forces was divided into ten autonomous cantons. The cantonal system
was selected to prevent dominance by one ethnic group over another.
The General Framework for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina (also known as the
Dayton Agreement) was signed on 14 December 1995. This agreement officially
ended the war and, among other things, recognized that the country was comprised
of two entities – the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (hereinafter
referred to as the Federation) and Republika Srpska (RS). It also established an
Inter-Entity Boundary Line (IEBL) and a four-kilometer-wide Zone of Separation
(ZOS) between the two entities. The IEBL was the front line when the war
ended. Most minefields are found along the IEBL and within the ZOS.
To oversee treaty implementation, an Implementation Force (IFOR) of 60,000
troops led by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) arrived in the
country in early 1996. In December 1996, IFOR’s duties were handed over to
the NATO-led multinational Stabilization Force (SFOR). There are approximately
30,000 SFOR troops currently in the country. Among other duties, SFOR is
responsible for training and supervising the demining teams for each entity army
and helping to identify and assist with the destruction of weapon storage
sites.
An additional body established to assist with legislation and treaty
compliance is the Office of the High Representative. This office is instrumental
in providing guidance and support for the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina
in following not only the Dayton Agreement, but also the obligations outlined in
the 1997 Mine Ban Treaty.
Mine Ban Policy
Bosnia and Herzegovina signed the Mine Ban Treaty
on 3 December 1997. At the signing ceremony the government declared its
intention to destroy its antipersonnel mine stockpiles and dismantle production
facilities within four years.[4]
The instrument of ratification was signed in Sarajevo on 29 August 1998 and
deposited at the United Nations (UN) on 8 September 1998. A copy of the
ratification document was provided to the Landmine Monitor.
Information about implementing legislation and reporting to the UN as
required by Article 7 of the treaty was not readily available. It is believed
that the Office of the High Representative (OHR) in Sarajevo is actively
supporting BiH in this regard.
Bosnia and Herzegovina attended all the Ottawa Process meetings as a full
participant and endorsed the Brussels Declaration but was absent from the UN
General Assembly landmines resolution votes in 1997 and 1998.
Following the breakup of the SFRY, Bosnia and Herzegovina declared that it
accepted the Convention on Conventional Weapons (CCW) on 1 September 1993 and
was hence bound by its provisions, including the rules contained in Protocol II.
BiH has not yet ratified 1996 amended Protocol II.
Production
During Tito’s regime, the SFRY was one of the
most prolific producers of landmines in the world. There were an estimated six
million mines of all types in JNA stocks at the beginning of the
conflict.[5] Other estimates
are three million JNA mines stockpiled prior to the war and an additional three
million mines acquired or made during the
conflict.[6] Three
mine-producing factories were identified in the towns of Gorazde, Vogosca and
Bugojno.[7]
According to one expert: “Gorazde is one of many factories in the
former Yugoslavia that were owned by UNIS, part of the Associated Metal
Industry. They still produce a lot of detonators, now mainly for commercial
rather than military use. They also made the Gorazde mines. There are two
variants of the Gorazde AP mine, though both look like the Canadian C3 Elsie:
one fires upwards and the other downwards. The latter is made for use in the
Gorazde AT mine, which is just a wooden box with fuse wells for two AP
mines.”
“Vogosca is just north of Sarajevo and made, among other things, the
ORKAN rocket systems that dispense KB-1 and KB-2 submunitions. They also had a
substantial research and development facility where they were working on an
electric AT mine called ABABEEL (the Iraqi designation).”
“Bugojno (Slavko Rodic Bugojno, known as SRB) is the big one; you will
see the SRB factory mark (in English or Cyrillic) on quite a few Yugo mines.
They made several types including PMA-3, MRUD, TMRP-6 and the MPR-M85 electronic
limpet mine. They are also working on some new AP and AT mines with electronic
fuses. Most of these factories were heavily damaged and now run between 10-20
per cent capacity. Some of the buildings are damaged or destroyed and many have
no power.”[8]
Another mine produced in the country was the Caplinka mine, a
tripwire-operated fragmentation stake mine fabricated in the Mostar
Region.[9]
Transfer
Reportedly, large numbers of SFRY-manufactured
landmines were exported and have been found in Afghanistan, Cambodia,
Mozambique, Namibia, and
elsewhere.[10] There have been
no reports of landmine import or export by Bosnia and Herzegovina since signing
the Mine Ban Treaty in December 1997.
Stockpiling
The 1995 Dayton Agreement also includes specific
obligations concerning the marking, removal and destruction of mines and
unexploded ordnance (UXO). These are found in Annex 1A of the Agreement.
Specifically, Article IV (2)(d) states: “ The Parties immediately after
this Annex enters into force shall begin promptly and proceed steadily to
complete the following activities within thirty (30) days after the Transfer of
Authority or as determined by the IFOR Commander: (1) remove, dismantle or
destroy all mines, unexploded ordnance, explosive devices, demolitions, and
barbed or razor wire from the Agreed Cease-Fire Zone of Separation or other
areas from which their forces are withdrawn; (2) mark all known mine
emplacements, unexploded ordnance, explosive devices and demolitions within
Bosnia and Herzegovina; and (3) remove, dismantle or destroy all mines,
unexploded ordnance, explosive devices and demolitions as required by the IFOR
Commander.”
Annex 1A Articles VI (3) (e) and VI (6) also gave IFOR, and its successor,
the Stabilization Force (SFOR) the right to monitor the clearing of minefields
and obstacles and the right to conduct spot-checks at any time and destroy any
undeclared stockpiles.
COMSFOR’s Instructions to the Parties (6 June 1997) required all
Parties to declare the extent of their mine stockpiles and move them to
officially agreed “cantonment” sites. The mines must remain at the
sites and cannot be used or moved without SFOR
permission.[11]
In December 1996, a conference was held in London to review the
implementation of the Dayton Agreement. At that time BiH authorities were urged
to formulate a plan to reduce antipersonnel mine stockpiles by 1 October 1997
and not acquire any additional mines.
At the signing of the Mine Ban Treaty, Bosnia and Herzegovina pledged to
destroy its AP mine stockpiles within four years. There are an estimated 400
stockpiles in the country. Weapon storage sites contain a wide variety of
munitions and are not exclusive to antipersonnel landmines. Information on the
location of the sites is not available to the public.
The NATO-led Stabilization Force (SFOR) is involved with assessing the
content of the weapon storage sites to identify the training needed to destroy
existing munitions and promote safety in working near these areas. SFOR is also
providing technical and financial assistance for the destruction of weapon
storage sites. Though partial or complete destruction of some sites has
occurred, specific information is not available to the public. The main method
of destruction is reportedly by explosion.
Antitank (AT) mines, AP mines and UXO found during demining or clearance
activities are destroyed. The BHMAC accredited figures for 1998 are given
below.
AT mines cleared: 192
AP mines cleared: 3,597
UXO cleared: 2,192
There are no mines being retained for training purposes as appropriate
training models are
available.[12] Stockpiles of AP
mines by other countries or non-state actors have not been identified.
Use
As noted above, all fighting factions used APMs
during the war.
Other than rare sporadic use of AP mines on individual property areas, there
are few allegations of relaid AP mines. The Jewish Cemetery in Sarajevo has had
two incidents of AP mines found in previously cleared areas. Neither incident
resulted in serious injury and the nature of these events is not entirely clear.
Landmine Problem
As a result of the war, the country is heavily
polluted with landmines and unexploded ordnance (UXO). As of January 1999, the
country’s focal point for humanitarian demining Bosnia and Herzegovina
Mine Action Center (BHMAC) reported 18,229 known minefields, of an estimated a
total of 30,000 minefields in the country with 750,000 to one million landmines
in the ground. Minefields can be found throughout the country, with
concentrations along Inter-Entity Boundary lines. Some minefields follow
military doctrine of the Yugoslav People’s Army (JNA) but most are
nuisance minefields. Of documented mines laid, the BHMAC reports that 83.55
percent are AP mines) and 16.45 percent are AT mines.
The United Nations Mine Action Center (UNMAC) was the UN-mandated agency
established in BiH in June 1996 to coordinate demining activities in the country
and supervise the establishment of national bodies to assume responsibility for
mine action. It was the in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
As a result of concerns expressed during the London conference in December
1996 to review the Dayton Agreement about the lack of progress in mine
clearance, the authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) were required to: use
their military forces for demining in accordance with internationally recognized
standards; assist the United Nations Mine Action Center (UNMAC) by providing
data and assigning priorities to proposed demining projects; support the
demining effort by exempting all aspects of mine clearance operations from taxes
and customs duties.
On 15 October 1997, the Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina and
the United Nations signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) concerning a
national Mine Action Plan to address the problem of landmines. Under the MOU,
all assets developed by UNMAC for the government of BiH and/or the entities are
being progressively handed over to the Bosnia and Herzegovina Commission for
Demining (BHCD). Handover of responsibility for mine action occurred on 1 July
1998.
The organizational structure for coordinated mine action in BiH is seen
below.
Council of Ministers
Board of Donors
Bosnia and Herzegovina Commission for Demining (BHCD)
Bosnia and Herzegovina Mine Action Center (BHMAC)
Entity Mine Action Center (EMAC)
Entity Mine Action Center (EMAC)
(Federation)
(Republika Srpska)
Regional Offices: Mostar, Tuzla, Bihac, Sarajevo
Regional Offices: Banja Luka and Pale
The Board of Donors provides guidance to the BHCD, BHMAC and the EMACs. It
also oversees the management of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP)
Trust Fund that supports the BHMAC. Members include embassy representatives
(Canada, Norway, Switzerland, USA, and Slovenia), UNHCR, World Bank and SFOR.
The Board meets every 3-4 weeks and is co-chaired by OHR and UNDP.
The primary role of the BHCD is to oversee the work of the BHMAC. The BHCD
also channels resources to the entity governments, which are responsible for
implementing the Mine Action Plan, facilitate cooperation between the Federation
and the Republika Srpska, and report on progress in mine action within the
country. The BHCD is a three-member commission with representation from Bosnian
Croats, Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Muslims.
BHMAC has three main components: 1) information (collect and maintain mine
related information, public relations); 2) finance (create financial reports,
trace how funds are spent, write proposals); and 3) coordination (establish and
impose standards for mine action, accredit qualified demining operations,
coordinate demining tasks in the IEBL).
EMACs responsibilities include: 1) conduct mine awareness, demarcation,
surveying and clearance operations; 2) provide information to the central
minefield database; 3) coordinate demining activities with other operational
agencies, ensuring they address approved priorities and meet approved standards;
4) propose a list of urgent tasks to be undertaken within the entity; 5) provide
information to the central minefield database.
Mine Action Funding
The London Peace Implementation Conference in
December 1996 stated the authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina were to
“support the demining effort by exempting all aspects of demining
operations from taxes and customs duties.” As of 1 January 1999, employees
of the MACs should receive health cards entitling the bearer to receive free
medical treatment and pension provisions. The Federation has honored the
commitment, but the RS has not yet done so. Tax exemptions do not apply to
personnel employed by NGOs or commercial
companies.[13]
From 1996-1998, ten major donor states (Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Germany,
Italy, Japan, Norway, Switzerland, UK, and the United States) have reportedly
provided US$35.66 million for mine action in Bosnia and
Herzegovina.[14] What
percentages were spent in the country for what actions is difficult to assess.
BHMAC records its own budget needs and expenses and any funds allocated
through it for other operational agencies. BHMAC does not have records of
independently funded demining organizations, mine awareness actions or the wide
variety of victim assistance programs being implemented in the country.
The newly established Slovenia Trust Fund could provide up to US$56 million
for mine clearance and victim assistance activities for BiH. This is through a
matching fund offered by the United States with a cap of US$14 million per year
for two years. The MOU between Slovenia and BiH has been signed; Slovenia has
until December 1999 to raise the funds for the first year of the
match.[15]
At present, the World Bank is supporting a US$30 million War Victims
Rehabilitation Project. The project duration is two years and was to be
effective in 1996. This project is located only in the Federation and has four
main components: 1) Community Based Rehabilitation (CBR) (US$ 13.1 million)
based in 38 poly-clinics located throughout the Federation; services offered
include physical therapy, services for mental illness, and psycho-social
rehabilitation. 2) Prosthetics and Orthotics Production (US$ 6.2 million)
providing equipment, materials and building rehabilitation for six prosthetic
centers in the Federation (Cazin, Mostar, Sarajevo, Livno, Tuzla, and Zenica).
3)Orthopedic and Reconstructive Surgery (US$ 8.8 million) providing medical
equipment and building rehabilitation in seven surgical departments in the
Federation (Mostar, Livno, Travnik, Bihac, Tuzla, Sarajevo, and Zenica).
4)Project Implementation Support ($US 1.9 million) providing office equipment,
vehicles, technical assistance and
training.[16]
Survey Information
The three armies involved in the conflict had some
training in mine warfare and generally employed JNA mine-laying methods. Mines
were often used to protect front line positions and avenues of retreat. In BiH
the front line was relatively stable and follows the IEBL and ZoS. The majority
of mines are found in these areas and in areas surrounding many of the ethnic
enclaves besieged during the war. Though many mines were laid by entity armies
according to JNA military doctrine, records for all mined areas have not been
found. Mined areas have been recorded but, for whatever reason, the reports
were not submitted. It could be that the person who was in charge of laying the
mines recorded the areas, but did not submit the report, or may have been killed
before the report was submitted. Additionally, the report may have been
submitted, but could have been destroyed during the war by the
fighting.[17] Local militia
groups and individuals also laid mines and reporting from these groups is
minimal.
Following the end of the hostilities, IFOR/SFOR were given a large number of
minefield records and maps by the entity armed forces. It is generally held that
these maps represent 50-60 percent of the minefields in the country. BHMAC
stores these records as well as positions of non-mapped minefields that are
discovered. BHMAC’s database in Sarajevo is the focal point for
information related to mine locations and demining activities.
Though Bosnia and Herzegovina is considered a seriously mine and UXO-affected
country, there has been no formal assessment (Level 1 Survey) of the extent of
the problem. A Level 1 General Survey is planned for Bosnia and Herzegovina in
1999. This is contingent upon funding received by BHMAC. RS and Federation MAC
survey teams already operational in the country will undertake the
implementation of the survey. Results from the Level 1 Survey will supplement
existing maps and information from demining agencies. It will also provide
information about the kind of land that is mine-affected and the impact on the
local community.
Specific Minefield Information
As of 25 January 1999, BHMAC recorded 18,229
minefields in the country. The current BHMAC estimate of the total number of
minefields in BiH is 30,000. The BHMAC notes 290 square kilometers of ground are
suspected to be mined. The summary of minefield records in the Federation and RS
are provided below.
As of 25 January 1999, the BHMAC reports 247,419 AP mines and 49,994 AT mines
laid in BiH (AP 83.55 percent and AT 16.45 percent):
AP Mine Type (Number)
PMA 1 1A (18,950)
PMA 2 (30,587)
PMA 3 (40,503)
PMR 2A AS (86,527)
PMR 3 (2,890)
PROM 1 1P (11,852)
MRUD (8,253)
Other AP (10,522)
Unknown (37,488)
TOTAL (247,419)
AT Mine Type (Number)
TMM 1 (7,592)
TMA 1 1A (1,031)
TMA 2 2A (533)
TMA 3 (7,730)
TMA 4 (6,118)
TMA 5 (1,427)
TMRP 6 (12,015)
Other AT (3,672)
Unknown AT (9,876)
TOTAL AT (49,994)
Minefield Marking and Mine Awareness Education
Clear marking of minefields and education about the
risk of landmines are two methods used in preventing additional injuries from
landmines. At this time, minefield marking is carried out by demining teams only
for areas that are in process of being cleared. Other than marking at clearance
sites or possible initiatives within a community, there is no preventative
marking to ensure effective exclusion of civilians from mined
areas.[19] The most common
marking technique is to line the periphery of the area in question with red or
yellow minefield tape, commonly known as police tape. “Mines”
(written in black) is printed on the tape. Until now, a technical survey of a
suspected mined area is directly followed by clearance activities. There have
been no reports of a technical survey being followed only by marking of the
minefield and leaving it without further action.
There is an extensive mine awareness program functioning at many levels in
Bosnia and Herzegovina. Main actions and implementing bodies include: ICRC;
Ministry of Education in both entities (with financial and technical support
from UNICEF); BHMAC, EMACs and Mine Awareness Working Groups (MAWGs); and SFOR
mine risk education for SFOR troops arriving in the country.
The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) began mine awareness
programs in BiH in March 1996. At present, ICRC has eleven sub-delegations in
the country with eleven mine awareness officers. For direct community level
activities (data collection and mine awareness) ICRC has recruited 122 Red Cross
volunteers from the approximate 100 municipalities in the country. The
volunteers/mine awareness instructors live in the mine-affected areas and work
within the community in which they live. The long term plan is to hand over all
activities to the local Red Cross
structures.[20]
There are four components to ICRC’s mine awareness program. community
based approach (targeting adults, made by Red Cross volunteers); school program
(children are targeted, drawing contests, compulsory mine awareness lessons,
quiz competitions and puppet shows); media campaign (television, leaflets, radio
used in early emergency phase); data gathering activities (collect information
related to mine incidents to help monitor the impact of the mine awareness
program and identify further
needs).[21]
UNICEF became involved in mine awareness in Bosnian and Herzegovina in 1997.
The most notable achievement is the collaborative work between UNICEF, UNHCR,
ICRC and the Ministries of Education in the Federation and the RS in providing
mine awareness education as a part of primary school curriculum throughout the
country. Information is provided as part of a weekly one-hour open education
period. As of 1998, both Ministries of Education have designated staff (two in
the Federation and one in the RS) to work full-time for mine awareness
education.
Teacher training to introduce mine awareness in the school system started in
1997 in the Federation and in the RS in 1998. The program followed a train the
trainer method whereby all primary school teachers should have received training
through original teacher trainers. There are over 6,900 primary school teacher
in the RS and more than 12,300 primary school teachers in the
Federation.[22] All are assumed
to have received teacher training for providing mine awareness education.
There are an estimated 266,918 primary school students in the Federation and
117,952 primary school students in the
RS.[23] All students should have
received mine awareness training in their schools.
UNICEF continues to provide Mine Awareness Kits for the school program which
include posters, leaflets, stickers, student timetable, teacher’s manuals,
audio tape, video tape, jigsaw puzzle and three simple board games. In addition
to the primary school program, UNICEF also supports: a mobile theater group
providing mine awareness information in the cantons of Zenica, Gorazde, Tuzla,
and Una Sana; provision of soccer balls and information materials to promote
mine awareness in soccer clubs in both entities (started by the Spirit of Soccer
and taken over by the Ministry of Sport in the Federation and
RS).[24]
The first Mine Awareness Working Group (MAWG) started in May 1996 under UNMAC
authority. This group developed mine awareness information standards that are
generally followed in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Currently, each EMAC has a MAWG
that meets regularly to improve coordination and share information among
agencies and ministries involved in mine awareness. The groups also help
prioritize needs for future mine awareness in their entities. The EMACs are
also involved in directly providing mine awareness through trained mine
awareness instructors.
Each multinational division (MND) in SFOR provides mine risk education to
troops arriving in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Proper training of foreign staff
working in a mine-affected country is important but often overlooked. The
British SFOR division has a rigorous mine risk education program that requires
monthly mine awareness training. The MND-North and Southwest divisions also
give mine awareness to schools, community centers and clubs in their areas of
operation.
Additional organizations involved in mine risk education programs include:
5+; Amphibia; Associacione dei Bambini; Association to Aid Refugees Japan
(AARJ); GENESIS; Handicap International (HI); IPTF; Japan Emergency NGOs (JEN);
Kreigs Kinder Not Hilfe; Landmine Survivors Network; MEDEX; Ministry of Sport in
both entities; Norwegian People’s Aid (NPA);
Pisac.[25]
Mine Clearance
There are five main categories of officially
recognized operators directly involved mine clearance efforts in Bosnia and
Herzegovina.[26] These include
commercial companies (international and local companies bidding for contracts,
focus on infrastructure, most of the work funded by the World Bank);
nongovernmental organizations (NPA, HI/APM, HELP); former warring factions (43
demining teams from the three entity armies; seven additional teams added;
roughly 450 personnel doing demining); MAC teams (four teams – two RS and
two Federation); and UNHCR teams (six teams – two RS and four Federation).
Civil and Protection Organizations (RS and Federation) have teams specializing
in Explosive Ordnance Disposal and house clearance.
Official demining activities began in 1996. There were few demining
organizations at that time and progress was slow. There were no demining
standards in place and much of the demining was “mine lifting”
(clearing only the mines indicated on the map) rather than demining to
humanitarian mine clearance
standards.[27]
BHCD now requires any demining service to be accredited by BHMAC prior to
receiving approval to work in the country. The three former warring factions
are accredited and now conduct all demining according to humanitarian mine
clearance standards. The UNHCR and MAC demining teams have also been accredited.
For 1999, there are over forty organizations applying for accreditation to
conduct demining in BiH.
As of January 1999, are nineteen organizations were accredited by BHMAC for
demining operations in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Amphibia; Defense Systems Ltd
(UK); Detektor; EMERCOM (Russia); FFG (Germany); GEOMINES (France); Handicap
International (France)/APM Bihac; HELP-UDT (EU/Local); Lenz UKB
(Germany/Hungary); MECHEM (S Africa); MINE-TECH (Zimbabwe); Norwegian
People’s Aid; Oktol; RONCO (USA); TAMAR Consulting (Germany); TWJ
Demining; UXB (USA) and UNIPAK.
The demining employees are primarily local staff. Training for staff is
generally provided by foreign experts. SFOR provides training and supervision
for the entity demining teams, NGO’s train their own staff, and the MACs
also provide training for their teams. Sufficient security to mine action
personnel is assured through the accreditation
process.[28]
All records for mine survey and clearance are available at the BHMAC
information center in
Sarajevo.[29] These records are
accessible and open to the public. Specific figures for 1996 were minimal. The
BHMAC information center initially reported the total amount of land cleared and
surveyed (area checked for mines but none were found) to humanitarian standards
in 1997 was 6,833 square kilometers and in 1998 was 4,733 square kilometers. (A
breakdown per month is available).
However, the figure for the total area cleared during 1997 has now been
revised downwards from 6,833 sq km to 4,623 sq km. This revision is the result
of an investigation that revealed monthly progress reports submitted to the
UNMAC by all operators that did not match the figures entered into the national
mines database from compilation reports submitted by accredited
operators.[30]
The BHMAC also explains the figures for mines located/destroyed in 1998 are
significantly less than figures for 1997. The BHMAC believes that this is due to
a change in clearance from the three military teams doing mine lifting in 1997
and began clearance in accordance with international standards in
1998.[31]
According to BHMAC information center, the following is the breakdown of
square meters surveyed and cleared according to land use. These are the total
to date.
TYPE OF LAND USE
SURVEYED (m2)
CLEARED (m2)
Airports
261,512.50
21,581.00
Bridges
37,815.00
262,320.00
Communications
--
11,435.00
Education and Culture
12,417.00
150,863.00
Electric Power & Coal
286,904.00
1,184,509.00
Housing
374,903.00
1,262,622.50
Natural Gas/District Heating
32,000.00
101,682.00
Other
1,077,290.00
1,770,559.10
Railways
405,825.00
124,267.00
Roads
60,253.00
385,827.00
Urban
-
14,230.00
Water/Waste Management
46,997.00
937,777.00
TOTAL
2,595,916.50
6,226,672.60*
Depending on the type of terrain and clearance method used, mine clearance
cost estimates range from 3-20DM per m2 (in US dollars: $1.76 - $11.76 per
m2).[32] Priority lists are
based on what cantons and aid agencies want done. EMACs collect this
information, develop priority lists and work with operators in the entities to
undertake these actions. Priority lists must be approved by the concerned
entity. Specific priority lists were not readily available to the Landmine
Monitor researcher. There are no apparent obstacles to the mine clearance
program and there appears to be a good level of cooperation among government
agencies, UN groups and clearance organizations.
Landmine Casualties
Information about landmine casualties is collected
directly from mine-affected communities (ICRC, local Red Cross, and other
organizations involved in mine-related action), hospitals and health centers,
local institutions for war disabled, police and military. Information
pertaining to mine incidents or victims is electronically stored on the ICRC
database and the BHMAC database.
ICRC Data
From 1 January 1992 through 31 December 1998, the ICRC registered 3,885 mine
victims (those injured or killed by landmines). There has been a progressive
decrease in the number of mine victims in the country with monthly averages of
56 victims from 1992-95 falling to a monthly average of 5.5 victims at the end
of 1998. (This number could increase due to delays in reporting.)
Information about location of mine accident, type of injury, age/gender of
victim, and military/civilian status are compiled from data collected through 31
May 1998.
Location of mine accidents Number of Victims
Bijeljina (RS) 633
Banja Luka (RS) 611
Una-Sana (Federation) 452
Tuzla (Federation) 302
Zenica-Doboj 301
Pale (RS) 295
Trebinje (RS) 275
Sarajevo (Federation) 253
Bosnian-Podrinje (Federation) 145
Neretvian (Federation) 86
Zupanja (Croatia) 1
Since the end of the war, the most mine-affected areas in terms of the number
of mine and UXO victims are as follows:
Sarajevo 180 victims
Tuzla 165 victims
Banja Luka 138 victims
Zenica-Doboj 120 victims
Una-Sana 99 victims
Central Bosnia 82 victims
Bijeljina 71 victims
Pale 30 victims
Neretvian 26 victims
Bosnian-Podrinje 22 victims
Trebinje 16 victims
The age breakdown for victims:
Age Number of Victims
0-5 years 14
6-10 years 95
11-18 years 317
19-25 years 619
26-35 years 1,017
36-45 years 712
46-60 years 396
over 60 119
N/A 360
While more than 80 percent of the victims were military during the war, this
proportion reversed at the end of the conflict with more than 90 percent of
victims identified as civilians. Since the end of the war, women represent less
than 10 percent of mine victims.
From January 1996 to April 1998, 30-40 percent of the injuries or deaths were
due to improvised munitions and UXO. Since January 1996, almost half the victims
(40 percent) have had to undergo amputation of one or more limbs, 40 percent
suffered crippling injuries, such as being blinded, and 20 percent of the
victims died as a result of their injury.
Surprisingly, the number of fatal injuries increased in 1997 and 1998. ICRC
explains this may due to the rise in injuries by UXO and IED, and by the greater
length of time needed to reach a hospital (during the war, field hospitals were
set up behind the front line).
BHMAC Data
BHMAC has information on mine accidents involving demining personnel and a
summary of general mine incidents in BiH. Mine Accidents involving demining
organization personnel from January 1996 to January 1999 are provided below.
Type of Organization
Killed
Serious Injury
Minor Injury
Civilian Organization
9
15
10
Former Warring Factions
7
12
10
Unknown
3
11
0
TOTAL
19
38
20
LOCATION
KILLED
SERIOUS
MINOR
FEDERATION
(by cantons)
147
423
157
Central Bosnia
14
65
17
Neretva
2
14
19
Posavina
4
8
2
Sarajevo
24
68
31
Tomislavgrad
2
12
7
Tuzla-Podrinje51
103
28
Una-Sana
15
38
24
Upper Drina (Gorazde)
3
20
4
Zenica-Doboj
32
95
25
REPUBLIKA SRPSKA
113
213
81
UNKNOWN
8
7
16
TOTAL
268
643
254
Other Organizations
Other organizations having detailed information about mine victims are
Landmine Survivors Network (LSN) and Jesuit Refugee Service (JRS). LSN has 460
in-depth interviews with landmine survivors and a registry of 200 additional
survivors in the LSN
database.[34] JRS works
directly with 157 victims of landmines and houses specific information about
these cases within their
organization.[35] Both of these
nongovernmental organizations will be described in more detail in the survivor
assistance section of this report.
Survivor Assistance
There are an estimated 7,000 amputees in Bosnia and
Herzegovina (4,500-5,000 in the Federation and 2,000-2,500 in Republika
Srpska).[36] Amputation may be
the result of a landmine injury or due to other causes.
As of 1997, the were 27 hospitals in the country capable of performing
amputations (12 hospitals in the Federation and 15 in Republika
Srpska).[37] There are a large
number of health centers and general hospitals located throughout the country.
The level of care and conditions within these facilities are extremely varied.
For rehabilitation and prosthetic facilities the Ministry of Health in each
entity is primarily responsible. There are thirty eight poly-clinics located
throughout the Federation that offer physical therapy. This is under the World
Bank War Victims Rehabilitation project. Concrete actions of material
provision, building rehabilitation and training were seen in early 1998. The
individual responsible for project implementation is Goran Cerkez. Queens
University (Canada) is providing technical assistance for the physical therapy
component.[38]
Nearly all prosthetic centers in BiH are under the Ministry of Health; there
is one private center, Merhamet, in Sarajevo. In the RS there are three main
prosthetic center locations: Banja Luka, Trebinje and Srbinje. In the
Federation, centers are located in Vitez, Sarajevo (Neretva), Tuzla, Zenica,
Cazin, and Livno. One center in Mostar and a center to replace Neretva in
Sarajevo are under construction under the World Bank
project.[39]
Though there are a large number of governmental and non-governmental
organizations involved in these areas, they are far too numerous to mention. A
general directory of organizations working in Bosnia and Herzegovina can be
found at International Council of Voluntary Agencies (ICVA) in Sarajevo. It is
produced annually and is organized according to region and work sector. Landmine
Survivors Network will be working on a specific Rehabilitation Directory for
Bosnia and Herzegovina and should be available by
mid-1999.[40]
The main international organizations working with landmine survivors are:
Austrian Red Cross (Banja Luka) is supporting over sixty victims of landmines
with provision of prostheses. Prosthetic equipment and materials are donated to
the main prosthetic center in Banja Luka and this center will, in turn, provide
prostheses for the cases designated by Austrian Red
Cross.[41]
Jesuit Refugee Service (Bihac, Banja Luka, Tuzla, Bjeljina, Zenica, Sarajevo,
Pale, Gorazde, Trbinje and Mostar) has a comprehensive program for mine victims
(generally under age eighteen when injured) throughout BiH. The program has
four main components:
- medical: prosthetics and rehabilitation, medical kit;
- material: food parcels, house repair, clothes, scholarships;
- legal: housing rights, rights of civil victims of war and the disabled:
- psychosocial: summer and winter camps, occupational (youth clubs), and
therapeutic (direct visits and psychological counseling jointly with
HI).[42]
Handicap International (Bihac, Banja Luka and with JRS) supports widely
varied activities in BiH. In Una Sana Canton, HI supports a local demining
organization (APM) and will begin a teacher training for primary school teachers
to ensure mine awareness information in well understood. In Banja Luka, HI
provided an upgraded training for orthotics and is involved in and AIDS program.
HI works jointly with JRS to provide psychological support to mine victims
through use of “expert teams” (French and local
psychologists).[43]
ICRC (all country) though not regularly involved in direct victim assistance
activities, ICRC provides support through information sharing with other
organizations, logistical support as able and mine awareness
education.[44]
Landmine Survivors Network (Banja Luka, Bihac, Bugojne, Mostar, Trebinje,
Doboj East and Tuzla Podringe) has engaged seven landmine survivors as outreach
workers to conduct all LSN’s activities. Services offered by LSN are
referral, peer support and hospital visitation, direct support for prosthetics,
education, house repair, food parcels and income generation
activities.[45]
National disability laws do exist in Bosnia and Herzegovina but the content
and application vary between cantons and between the Federation and the
RS.[46]
[1]According to the last
census in 1991, the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) was 4,209,308
citizens of whom 43.7 percent identified themselves as Bosnian Muslims (known
since the war as Bosniaks), 31.3 percent as Bosnian Serbs, and 17.3 percent as
Bosnian Croats. A further 7.7 percent were either of other ethnic origins or
identified themselves as Yugoslavs.
[2]The World Bank, Bosnia and
Herzegovina: Toward Economic Recovery, 1996.
[3]UNICEF, Bosnia and
Herzegovina Women and Children Situation Analysis 1998, p. 3.
[4]ICRC and UNHCR, The Silent
Menace/Landmines in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1997, p. 12.
[5]MAG and The Cooperative
Bank, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1997, p.2.
[32]Interview with Peter
Isaacs, Sarajevo, 28 January 1999.
[33]This number is
different from the 3,885 total reported cases as mine incidents continue to be
recorded. The last comprehensive update of the ICRC mine victim database was 31
May 1998.
[34]Interview with Plamenko
Priganica, Tuzla, 30 January 1999.
[35]Interview with Pierre
Girardier, Sarajevo, 27 January 1999.
[36]ICRC and UNHCR 1997
report, The Silent Menace/Landmines in Bosnia and Herzegovina, p.43; Interview
with Goran Cerkez, Sarajevo, 28 January 1999.
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