Libya

Last Updated: 27 October 2011

Mine Ban Policy

Mine ban policy overview

Mine Ban Treaty status

Not a State Party

Pro-mine ban UNGA voting record

Abstained on every pro-ban resolution since 1998, including Resolution 65/48 in December 2010

Participation in Mine Ban Treaty meetings

Did not participate in the Tenth Meeting of States Parties in November–December 2010

Key Events

Libyan government forces used mines extensively in the first half of 2011; in March 2011, Libya’s National Transitional Council pledged not to use antipersonnel mines

Background

After former Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi fled Tripoli in late August 2011 and as this report was edited in late September 2011, fighting between Libyan government forces and rebel groups supported by nations participating in the Operation Unified Protector military action by NATO was coming to an end. Antipersonnel mines have been used extensively in the conflict by Libyan government forces loyal to Gaddafi.

Policy

The Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya has not acceded to the Mine Ban Treaty. Under the leadership of Muammar Gaddafi, Libya showed interest in the treaty, but made no effort to join it.

On 28 April 2011, the National Transitional Council (NTC), the opposition authority in Libya, issued a communiqué formally pledging that “no forces under the command and control of the [NTC] will use antipersonnel or anti-vehicle landmines.”[1] The NTC committed to “destroy all landmines in their possession” and to “cooperate in the provision of mine clearance, risk education, and victim assistance.” The communiqué also stated that “any future Libyan government should relinquish landmines and join the 1997 Mine Ban Treaty.”[2] 

Previously, under Gaddafi’s rule, Libya often called for the Mine Ban Treaty to be revised and cited several reasons for not joining. For example, in a statement to the UN General Assembly (UNGA) opening in September 2010, Libya stated:

…anti-personnel mines are a weapon that the vulnerable States use to defend their territories against invading forces. The powerful States do not even need to use them since they possess arsenals of advanced Weapons. In this framework, the Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction should be amended, taking into account the interests of the small States. The legislators of this convention should have made the States concerned committed to compensate those affected by mines planted in their lands and to provide legal and political assurances for the protection of small States due to the lack of possession of neither defensive nor offensive weapons.[3]

Libya is not a party to the Convention on Conventional Weapons.

Use, production, trade, and stockpiling

In the past, Libya stated that it had never produced or exported antipersonnel mines, and that it no longer stockpiled the weapon.[4] Abundant evidence has emerged that shows how, under Gaddafi’s leadership, Libya accumulated a stockpile of hundreds of thousands of antipersonnel and antivehicle mines, and used tens of thousands of mines during the conflict in 2011.

As the Gaddafi government progressively lost control of the country in 2011, anti-government rebels and civilians gained access to massive weapon and munitions depots containing mines that were abandoned by government forces and left unsecured. This included the 60-bunker Hight Razma facility near Benghazi, a 35-bunker facility near Ajdabiya, and a smaller facility near Tobruk. In September 2011, Human Rights Watch (HRW) visited in a Khamis Brigade base in the Salahadin neighborhood of Tripoli that included a farm compound holding approximately 15,000 antipersonnel mines and a nearby storage facility housing more than 100,000 antipersonnel and antivehicle mines.[5]

The first reports of pro-Gaddafi forces using mines emerged in late March 2011 in the east of the country, then in the Nafusa mountain range in the northwest, and finally around Tripoli and coastal towns in the west. HRW has confirmed the use of five types of mines in six separate locations. Additionally, three types of mines have been found abandoned at three other locations. However, this is at best an incomplete picture of the new contamination.

Mine Types identified in Libya during the 2011 conflict

Name

Type

Country of production

Location used/User

T-AB-1

Antipersonnel

Brazil

Used by government forces in Ajdabiya, Khusha, Misrata, al-Qawalish (three separate locations)

Type-72SP

Antivehicle

China

Used by government forces in Ajdabiya, al-Qawalis; abandoned stockpiles in Tripoli

Type-84A

Antivehicle

China

Used by government forces in Misrata

PRB-M3 and

PRB-M3A1

Antivehicle

Belgium

Used by rebels in Ajdabiya; abandoned in storage in Benghazi

PRB- NR442

Antipersonnel

Belgium

Abandoned stockpiles in Ajdabiya and Tripoli

The Brazilian T-AB-1 personnel mine appears to be the most frequently used antipersonnel mine favored by pro-Gaddafi forces. Its low metal content makes the mine particularly challenging for detection and clearance efforts.[6] Amnesty International documented the use of T-AB-1 mines in the Tammina neighborhood of Misrata on 25 May 2011.[7] There have been multiple instances of T-AB-1 antipersonnel mines emplaced together with Chinese Type-72 antivehicle mines.[8] In July, unconfirmed reports by rebel forces claimed that Gaddafi troops were laying T-AB-1 and Type-72SP mines around the western towns near the Tunisian border, including at Ghazaya, Ruwas, and Kiklah.[9] The same mines have been found in al-Qawalish, Zintan, Khusha, and the rest of the surrounding Nafusa mountain region.[10]

Remotely delivered “parachute mines” were delivered by Grad ground rockets into the port area of the city of Misrata by Gaddafi forces on 5 May 2011. The Chinese-produced Type-84 scatterable antivehicle mines had markings indicating a 2009 manufacture date. These mines are equipped with a sensitive magnetic influence fuze, which also functions as an inherent anti-disturbance feature, as well as a self-destruct mechanism that can be set for a period of four hours to three days. These characteristics pose special problems as the mines sit on the ground and complicate clearance efforts.[11]

By 1 September, the European Union and at least four Mine Ban Treaty States Parties (Australia, Canada, Germany, and Norway) had condemned or expressed grave concern about the Libyan government’s use of antipersonnel mines, in addition to the President of the Tenth Meeting of States Parties to the Mine Ban Treaty.[12]

Prior to 2011, Libya last used antipersonnel mines during its 1980–1987 war with Chad. Libya is contaminated by mines and unexploded ordnance from World War II, as well as from wars with Egypt (1977) and Chad (1980–1987). Minefields are said to exist in desert, port, and urban areas; however, no nationwide survey has ever been conducted. Some facilities are protected by minefields, such as an ammunition storage area outside of Ajdabiya that HRW confirms is partially surrounded by a minefield marked solely by a deteriorating fence.

 



[1] HRW, “Libya: Rebels Pledge Not to Use Landmines,” Press release, 29 April 2011, www.hrw.org.

[2] The text of the communiqué can be found at www.hrw.org.

[3] Statement by Musa Abdussalam Kousa, Secretary of the General People’s Committee for Foreign Liaison and International Cooperation, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, UNGA General Debate, New York, 28 September 2010, www.reachingcriticalwill.org.

[4] Interview with Col. Ali Alahrash, Ministry of Defense, in Geneva, 16 March 2004.

[5] HRW, “Landmines in Libya: Technical Briefing Note,” 19 July 2011; and HRW, “Libya: Secure Unguarded Arms Depots,” 9 September 2011.

[6] Brazil has declared in its Article 7 reports that production and exports of T-AB-1 antipersonnel mines ceased in 1989, even before Brazil joined the Mine Ban Treaty in 1997. There is no export record of the shipments, because arms export records are not held for longer than 10 years. An internal investigation has been opened into the origins and transfer of the T-AB-1 mines to Libya. HRW meeting with Brazilian delegation to intersessional Standing Committee meetings of the Mine Ban Treaty, Geneva, 27 June 2011. In June 2011, the ICBL asked that Brazil publicly condemn the use of antipersonnel mines in Libya and provide detailed information on the transfer of T-AB-1 antipersonnel mines to Libya, including the date of manufacture and transfer, as well as the number of mines exported.  The ICBL had not yet received a reply as of 23 September 2011. ICBL letter to Antonio de Aguiar Patriota, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Brazil, 13 June 2011.

[7] Amnesty International, “Libya: Civilians at risk amid new mine threat,” Press release, 25 May 2011, www.amnesty.org.

[8] HRW, “Landmines in Libya: Technical Briefing Note,” 19 July 2011.

[9] “Land mines slow Libyan rebels’ march toward Tripoli,” The Washington Post, 26 July 2011, washingtonpost.com.

[10] HRW, “Landmines in Libya: Technical Briefing Note,” 19 July 2011.

[11] The magnetic influence fuze explodes the mine when it detects a change in its immediate magnetic environment, such as a vehicle passing over it or a person approaching the mine who is wearing or carrying a sufficient amount of ferrous metal, like military equipment or a camera. Additionally, given the sensitivity of the fuze, any change in orientation or movement of the mine may cause the fuze to function.

[12] ICBL, “Landmine Use in Libya in 2011: Frequently Asked Questions,”www.icbl.org.


Last Updated: 14 September 2011

Cluster Munition Ban Policy

Background

As this report went to print in early August 2011, fighting was continuing between Libyan government forces under the leadership of Muammar Gaddafi and rebel groups supported by nations participating in the Operation Unified Protector military action by NATO. Cluster munitions have been used in the conflict by Libyan government forces.

Policy

The Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya has not acceded to the Convention on Cluster Munitions. Under the leadership of Muammar Gaddafi, Libya showed interest in the convention, but made no effort to join it.

The Monitor is not aware of any statements on the cluster munition ban by the National Transitional Council (NTC), the opposition authority in Libya. On 28 April 2011, the NTC formally pledged not to use mines.[1]

Libya participated in three regional conferences held during the 2007–2008 Oslo Process that developed the convention, but attended the formal negotiations in Dublin in May 2008 as an observer only and did not join in the consensus adoption of the convention.[2] Libya did not attend the Oslo Signing Conference in December 2008.

Libya showed some interest in the convention during 2010. It attended a regional conference on cluster munitions in Pretoria, South Africa in March 2010 and participated as an observer in the First Meeting of States Parties to the Convention on Cluster Munitions in Vientiane, Lao PDR in November 2010. Its representatives did not make any statements at these meetings. Libya did not attend intersessional meetings of the convention in Geneva in June 2011.

Libya is not a party to the Mine Ban Treaty or the Convention on Conventional Weapons.

Production, transfer, and stockpiling

Libya is not known to have produced or exported cluster munitions. 

Libya possesses a stockpile of cluster munitions, but its current status and composition are unknown. Jane’s Information Group lists Libya as possessing KMG-U dispensers (which deploy submunitions) and RBK-500 aerial cluster bombs, again presumably of Soviet/Russian origin.[3] It also possesses Grad 122mm surface-to-surface rocket launchers, but it is also not known if the ammunition for these weapons includes versions with submunition payloads.[4]

In June 2011, Spain confirmed that it had transferred a total of 1,055 MAT-120 cluster munitions containing 22,155 submunitions to Libya in 2006 and 2008.[5]

Use

2011 Conflict

In April 2011, Human Rights Watch and The New York Times documented the use of cluster munitions by government forces loyal to Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi in residential areas of the city of Misrata. This is believed to be the first and only known use of the MAT-120 cluster munition in combat.

Human Rights Watch observed at least three cluster munitions explode over the el-Shawahda neighborhood of Misrata on the night of 14 April 2011. It subsequently interviewed witnesses to two other apparent cluster munition strikes and found that submunitions appeared to have landed about 300 meters from Misrata hospital.  Recovered remnants of the cluster munitions were identified by Human Rights Watch and The New York Times as the MAT-120 manufactured by Spanish company Instalaza SA. The MAT-120 is a projectile fired by a 120mm mortar that contains 21 dual-purpose submunitions. Markings on carrier projectile remnants and submunitions indicated they were produced in 2007.[6]

Libyan authorities immediately denied government use of cluster munitions in Misrata. When asked by media to comment on the use, Tripoli-based government spokesperson Mussa Ibrahim responded, “We can never do this [use cluster munitions], morally, legally and because this is our country. We can't do that, we will never do it.”[7]

On 8 May 2011, NATO’s chief of operations and intelligence, U.S. Air Force Maj. Gen. Mark Ramsay, said, “We have absolutely irrefutable evidence that he [Gaddafi] used, likely mortar fire, to drop cluster munitions on his own people for the express purpose of killing and injuring them.”[8]

By 1 July, the European Union and at least eight States Parties and signatories to the Convention on Cluster Munitions had condemned or expressed grave concern about the Libyan government’s use of cluster munitions: Austria, Australia, Lao PDR, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, and the United Kingdom (UK). United States (US) Secretary of State Hilary Clinton described the Libyan government’s cluster munition use as “worrying.”[9]The UN High Commissioner for Human Rights and the CMC condemned Libyan use of cluster munitions.[10] A NTC spokesperson said the government’s use of cluster munitions confirmed it was “bent on creating a large humanitarian crisis in Misrata.”[11]

There is no evidence of cluster munition use in Libya by states involved in the NATO military action, including by the US and other states that have not yet joined the Convention on Cluster Munitions.[12]

Previous Use

Previously, Libyan forces used aerial cluster bombs, likely RBK bombs of Soviet/Russian origin, containing AO-1Sch and PTAB-2.5 submunitions, at various locations during its intervention in Chad during the 1986–1987 conflict.[13]

On 25 March 1986, US Navy aircraft attacked Libyan ships using Mk-20 Rockeye cluster bombs in the Gulf of Sidra. On the night of 14–15 April 1986, US Navy aircraft dropped 60 Rockeye bombs on the airfield at Benina.[14]

On 27 November 2009, a commercial oil company survey crew in Libya found remnants of a German World War II-era “butterfly bomb” (an early version of a cluster bomb).  Subsequently, an explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) expert identified six more such cluster munition remnants.[15]

Cluster munition remnants

The precise extent of contamination from cluster munition remnants is not known. Mines Advisory Group (MAG) conducted a rapid assessment of contamination in Misrata at the end of May 2011 and reported, “The presence of UXO and cluster munitions is extensive. … Conclusive evidence of cluster munition use was found at three sites, and the probability of finding additional contamination in other currently inaccessible areas of the city is very high.”[16]

In June 2011, MAG reported that makeshift street “museums” in Misrata were displaying a large range of munitions, including unexploded submunitions, and attracting hundreds of curious visitors every day.  MAG displayed a photograph on its website of a man holding a submunition in each hand, which it described as “a disaster waiting to happen.”[17]

While it has not been confirmed, contamination from unexploded submunitions may also have occurred from air strikes on ammunition storage areas that contained stockpiled cluster munitions, causing submunitions to be ejected into the surrounding area.

Clearance of cluster munition contaminated areas

Due to the ongoing conflict, as of July 2011 the Monitor is not able to provide detailed information on the status of the clearance of cluster munition remnants. In July 2011, it was reported that MAG and DanChurchAid (DCA) had found parts of a cluster munition casing and four unexploded submunitions at Al Dafaniya, west of Misrata, which were all subsequently destroyed.[18]

To ensure the mine action response to the mine/explosive remnants of war (ERW) threat in Libya is coordinated, the UN and international NGOs have partnered to form a “Joint Mine Action Coordination Team” (JMACT).[19] JMACT partners include, Danish Demining Group (DDG), DCA, Handicap International (HI), Information Management and Mine Action Programs (iMMAP), ICRC, Norwegian People’s Aid, MAG, the Swiss Foundation for Mine Action, UNICEF, and the UN Mine Action Service (UNMAS). 

Risk Reduction Education

To respond to the immediate threat from ERW, including cluster munition remnants, UNICEF and HI have initiated a mine/ERW risk education (RE) program in Libya. As of July 2011, direct sessions with trained volunteers were underway in internally displaced person (IDP) camps in areas of eastern Libya including Ajdabiya, Benghazi, and Misrata.[20] In addition, more than 30,000 information leaflets had been distributed to IDP communities in Ajdabiya, Benghazi, Brega, and Misrata in addition to Tunisian border areas. Mosques, local radio stations, and civil society groups have also disseminated safety messages in their local communities.[21] As of mid-July, HI reported that it had intervened in 23 IDP camps in Benghazi, providing more than 2,000 people (mostly children) with emergency RE. Private companies, local authorities, and other associations have also benefited from RE.[22]

Casualties

In June and July 2011, four cluster munition casualties were reported, all in Misrata: one man was reported killed at Al Dafaniya west of Misrata[23] and three children—two boys[24] and one girl[25]—were reported injured. The Monitor has been unable to verify if these casualties were caused by unexploded submunitions from the MAT-120 cluster munition strikes and, as yet, there is no coherent data collection system in place.

The Monitor has identified a total of 63 mine/ERW casualties in the period from April-July 2011, including the four reported cluster munition casualties listed above. Casualties were reported in Ajdabiya, Al Wahat, Misrata, and the Nafusa mountains. For 54 casualties, no detailed information was available on the type of explosive item that caused the casualty; it is possible that there may have been additional casualties from unexploded submunitions among these casualties.[26]

No casualties from cluster munitions were identified in Libya prior to the outbreak of conflict in 2011.

The 2011 conflict has resulted in a deteriorating health care situation in the country including lack of access to health care, drugs, and medical supplies and a shortage of health professionals, including nurses and other hospital staff.  Libya’s health system had been dependent on migrant workers, many of whom left the country due to the conflict.[27]

 



[1] Human Rights Watch Press release, “Libya: Rebels Pledge Not to Use Landmines,” 29 April 2011, www.hrw.org.

[2] At the Livingstone Conference on Cluster Munitions in April 2008, Libya endorsed the Livingstone Declaration, which called on African states to support the negotiation of a “total and immediate” prohibition on cluster munitions. At the Kampala Conference on the Convention on Cluster Munitions in September 2008, Libya endorsed the Kampala Action Plan, which called on all African states to sign and ratify the convention as soon as possible.  For more details on Libya’s cluster munition policy and practice up to early 2009, see Human Rights Watch and Landmine Action, Banning Cluster Munitions: Government Policy and Practice (Ottawa: Mines Action Canada, May 2009), pp. 220–221. Libya also attended the Africa Regional Conference on the Universalization and Implementation of the Convention on Cluster Munitions in Pretoria, South Africa in March 2010.

[3] Robert Hewson, ed., Jane’s Air-Launched Weapons, Issue 44 (Surrey, UK: Jane’s Information Group Limited, 2004), p. 842.

[4] International Institute for Strategic Studies, The Military Balance 2011, (London: Routledge, 2011), p. 320. Libya has demonstrated that it possesses at least one type of 122mm cargo rocket. Human Rights Watch and The New York Times also documented the use by government forces of Type-84A scatterable antivehicle mines (made in China) delivered by 122mm rockets into the port area of Misrata on the night of 14–15 April 2011, see www.hrw.org.

[5] The transfer took place before Spain instituted a moratorium on export of cluster munitions and prior to its adoption of the Convention on Cluster Munitions. Statement by Spain, Convention on Cluster Munitions Intersessional Meeting, Geneva, 29 June 2011. In the statement, Spain confirmed information provided to the New York Times by the Deputy Director General for Foreign Trade of Defense Materials and Dual Use Goods, Ramon Muro Martinez, that: “One license to Lybia [sic] consisting of 5 cluster munitions for demonstration was issued in August 2006. The export took place in October 2006. There were two more licenses issued in December 2007 with a total amount of 1,050 cluster munitions. They were sent in March 2008.” CJ Chivers, “Following Up, Part 2. Down the Rabbit Hole: Arms Exports and Qaddafi’s Cluster Bombs,” The New York Times – At War Blog, June 22, 2011, atwar.blogs.nytimes.com.

[6] Human Rights Watch fact sheet: “Cluster Munition Use in Libya,” 27 June 2011. www.hrw.org; CJ Chivers, “Qaddafi Troops Fire Cluster Bombs Into Civilian Areas,” The New York Times, 15 April 2011, www.nytimes.com; and Human Rights Watch Press release, “Libya: Cluster Munitions Strike Misrata,” 15 April 2011, www.hrw.org.

[7] ‘Tripoli denies use of cluster bombs’, Reuters (Tripoli), video report, 16 April 2011, www.reuters.com.

[8] Eric Westervelt, “NATO Official: More Progress Than Meets Eye In Libya,” NPR, 8 May 2011, www.npr.org. 

[9] Transcript of remarks by Hillary Rodham Clinton, US Secretary of State, Berlin, 15 April 2011, www.state.gov.

[10] CMC press release, “Cluster Munition Coalition condemns use of cluster munitions by Libyan Armed Forces,” 15 April 2011, www.stopclustermunitions.org; and UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay, Condemnation of reported use of cluster munitions in Libya, 20 April 2011, www.ohchr.org.

[11] Abdul Hafiz Ghoga, NTC Spokesperson, Comments on reports of cluster munition use in Libya, 17 April 2011, www.telegraph.co.uk.

[12] At the outset of the conflict, the CMC urged all countries that have joined the Convention on Cluster Munitions to help ensure that cluster munitions are not used by states that have not yet joined the Convention in any military action in Libya. See CMC statement, “States parties should warn against use of cluster munitions in Libya,” 18 March 2011, www.stopclustermunitions.org.

[13] HI, Circle of Impact: The Fatal Footprint of Cluster Munitions on People and Communities (Brussels: HI, 2007), p. 48.

[14] Daniel P. Bolger, Americans at War: 1975–1986, An Era of Violent Peace (Novato, CA.: Presidio Press, 1988), p. 423.

[15] Daily report by Jan-Ole Robertz, EOD Technical Advisor, Countermine Libya, 27 November 2009.

[16] MAG, “Libya: Assessment mission shows need for urgent response in Misrata,” 1 June 2011, www.maginternational.org.

[17] MAG, “Libya: Remnants of conflict continue to pose huge threat to civilians,” 22 June 2011, www.maginternational.org.

[18] In mid-July 2011, it was reported that MAG and DCA had conducted an assessment in Al Dafaniya, west of Misrata, where they found that a man had been killed while handling an item of unexploded ordnance. On further inspection the teams found parts of a cluster munition casing as well as four other unexploded submunitions, all of which were destroyed.  Joint Mine Action Coordination Team – Libya, “Weekly Report # 9, 18 July 2011,” p. 4.

[19] UNMAS, “Joint Mine Action Coordination Team – Libya (JMACT),” undated, www.mineaction.org.

[20] UNICEF Press release, “UNICEF and Handicap International raising risk awareness through programs for children in Libya,” Benghazi, Libya, 8 July 2011, www.unicef.org.

[21] Ibid.

[22] HI, “Libya: Widespread distribution of mine-risk prevention messages,” 12 July 2011, www.handicap-international.us.

[23] Joint Mine Action Coordination Team – Libya, “Weekly Report # 9, 18 July 2011,” p. 4.

[24] On 6 June 2011, UNICEF reported that two cousins, Ayman (14) and Mamud (9), had brought home a piece of ordnance from near the Medical Technical College in Misrata, which subsequently exploded, destroying Ayman’s hands. UNICEF, “Libya: Protecting children from unexploded ordnance,” Misrata, 6 June 2011. www.unicef.org.au. Ayman was subsequently taken to Tunisia for treatment. His family believes his injuries were definitely caused by an unexploded submunition. Email from James Wheeler, 11 June 2011. 

[25] In late June 2011, a spokesperson for Misrata health committee, Dr. Khaled Abufalghan, told Al Jazeera, “Just the other day a child was admitted to hospital after picking up a live cluster bomb. She lost her hand.” Ruth Sherlock, “Unlucky camel finds Libya's largest minefield,” Al Jazeera, 28 June 2011, english.aljazeera.net.

[26] Monitor casualty analysis based on the following sources: MAG, “LIBYA: Children at risk from munitions,” 14 June 2011, www.maginternational.org; UNICEF, “Libya: Protecting children from unexploded ordnance,” Misrata, 6 June 2011, www.unicef.org.au; Ruth Sherlock, “Unlucky camel finds Libya's largest minefield,” Al Jazeera, 28 June 2011, english.aljazeera.net; email from James Wheeler, Photographer, 10 August 2011; C.J. Chivers, “Land Mines Descend on Misurata’s Port, Endangering Libyan City’s Supply Route,” New York Times (Misrata) 6 May 2011, www.nytimes.com; Human Rights Watch, “Libya: Government Lays More Mines in Western Mountains,” (Zintan), 8 July 2011, www.hrw.org; and UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), “Libya Arab Jamahiriya Crisis: Situation Report #44,” 10 June 2011, libya.humanitarianresponse.info.

[27] OCHA, ““Libya Arab Jamahiriya Crisis: Situation Report #49,” 14 July 2011, libya.humanitarianresponse.info.


Last Updated: 17 September 2011

Mine Action

Contamination and Impact

Libya is contaminated with mines, cluster munition remnants, and other explosive remnants of war (ERW) as a result of internal and international armed conflict in 2011 as well as earlier conflicts. According to the UN, Libya faces a significant mine and ERW threat following the recent conflict, with “serious humanitarian challenges” due to unexploded ordnance (UXO) and abandoned explosive ordnance (AXO), newly laid mines, ammunition management concerns, the use of cluster munitions, and the high number of small arms and light weapons among the civilian population.[1] The precise extent and impact of the problem was not known, however, as no nationwide survey has yet been conducted.[2]

Mines

Libya is contaminated with mines as a result of fighting during World War II in North Africa, as well as conflicts with Egypt in 1977 and Chad in 1980–1987. The borders with Chad, Egypt, and Tunisia are said to be affected by mines, as are areas in the north and south of the country. In July 2011, Human Rights Watch reported that some facilities in Libya were protected by minefields, such as an ammunition storage area (ASA) outside of Ajdabiya, which was partially surrounded by a minefield marked solely by a deteriorating fence.[3]

Additional contamination resulted from the conflict in 2011, which was ongoing as the Monitor was going to press. The first reports of pro-Qaddafi forces emplacing new mines began to emerge in late March 2011.[4] Human Rights Watch has confirmed government use of antipersonnel mines and antivehicle mines in at least six separate locations: Ajdabiya, Khusha, Misrata, and three locations near to al-Qawalish.[5] Media reports have referred to use in additional locations that cannot yet be verified independently. In July 2011, for example, there were claims of significant mine contamination in and around the city of Brega,[6] and reports of some contamination in Zlitan.[7]

The rebel forces also used a number of antivehicle mines in April 2011, breaking a pledge to Human Rights Watch that they would not do so. They subsequently renewed a commitment not to use any mines, which was approved by the National Transitional Council.[8]

Cluster munition remnants

The precise extent of contamination from cluster munition remnants is not known. In April 2011, Human Rights Watch and The New York Times documented the use of cluster munitions by government forces loyal to Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi in residential areas of the city of Misrata. Human Rights Watch observed at least three cluster munitions explode over the el-Shawahda neighborhood of Misrata on the night of 14 April 2011. It subsequently interviewed witnesses to two other apparent cluster munition strikes and found that submunitions appeared to have landed about 300 meters from Misrata hospital.[9] The extent of residual contamination is not known.

Mines Advisory Group (MAG) conducted a rapid assessment of contamination in Misrata at the end of May 2011 and reported, “The presence of UXO and cluster munitions is extensive. … Conclusive evidence of cluster munition use was found at three sites, and the probability of finding additional contamination in other currently inaccessible areas of the city is very high.”[10]

In June 2011, MAG reported that makeshift street “museums” in Misrata were displaying a large range of munitions, including unexploded submunitions, and attracting hundreds of curious visitors every day. MAG displayed a photograph on its website of a man holding a submunition in each hand, which it described as “a disaster waiting to happen.”[11]

While it has not been confirmed, contamination from unexploded submunitions may also have occurred from air strikes on ASAs that contained stockpiled cluster munitions, causing submunitions to be ejected into the surrounding area.

There may also be some residual contamination from World War II.[12] On 27 November 2009, a commercial oil company survey crew in Libya found remnants of a German World War II-era “butterfly bomb” (an early version of a cluster bomb). Subsequently, an explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) expert identified six more such cluster munition remnants.[13]

Other explosive remnants of war

Contamination from both UXO and AXO is believed to be extremely heavy, but the precise extent was not known as of August 2011. The UN stated that: “As operations continue and as access within Libya increases, the scope of the ERW threat throughout Libya is being further understood. There is a need to expand the current capacities of the JMACT [Joint Mine Action Coordination Team; see Mine Action Program section below] partners in order to increase clearance and risk education [RE] activities throughout Libya to reduce the impact that ERW has on the civilian population. There is also a need for more survey capacities in order to more effectively assess the levels of contamination in the many different areas affected by the conflict.”[14]

Mine Action Program

Key institutions and operators

Body

Situation on 1 January 2011

National Mine Action Authority

None

Mine action center

None

International demining operators

A number of commercial companies, including Mechem and RPS Explosives Engineering Services

National demining operators

Armed forces

Ministry of Interior and Justice’s Civil Protection Unit

Libya did not have a fully fledged mine action program in 2010, despite the announcement in 2005 of a “national campaign” to remove mines along the borders with Egypt and Chad and a conference in November 2008, which sought to support efforts towards establishing a civilian mine action program.[15]

There was also no fully functioning national mine action authority or mine action center, although a Libyan organization, the Libyan Demining Association (LDA, formerly known as the Anti-Mines Association), claimed in 2009 to be fulfilling some of the roles of a mine action center.[16] A National Program for Demining and Land Reclamation, established by the General People’s Committee and headed by the Minister of International Cooperation, was said to be the institution authorized to prepare general plans and policies for mine action in Libya.[17]

UNDP Libya had announced a mine action capacity building project for calendar year 2009. The aims of the project were to “develop and modernize the national structures and standards of the Libyan Government and the Anti-Mines Association already in place in order to better address the risk posed by landmines and ERW in Libya.”[18] It was reported that no chief technical advisor was hired, as planned, during 2009.[19] This project has since been overtaken by other events.

The conflict in 2011 led to the involvement of the UN Mine Action Service (UNMAS) and several NGO operators in new mine action operations, especially in the east of the country. UNMAS reported that to ensure the mine action response to the mine/ERW threat in Libya is coordinated, the UN and international NGOs have partnered to form a “Joint Mine Action Coordination Team” (JMACT).[20] JMACT partners include Danish Demining Group, DanChurchAid (DCA), Handicap International (HI), Information Management and Mine Action Programs (iMMAP), the ICRC, Norwegian People’s Aid, MAG, the Swiss Foundation for Mine Action (FSD), UNICEF, and UNMAS.[21]

Land Release

In the past, the Ministry of Defense and the Civil Protection Unit, located within the Ministry of Interior and Justice, have each had responsibilities for various aspects of mine action. The Ministry of Defense is reported to clear areas serving either a military or civilian development purpose. In previous years, the Civil Protection Unit is said to have carried out clearance in affected communities.[22]

Mine clearance in 2010

Libya has not reported on mine clearance in 2010 or in previous years. In 2011, former deminers who had defected from Qaddafi’s army were said to be clearing mines to aid the rebel forces’ military operations, but clearance did not appear to meet humanitarian standards.[23] Humanitarian mine and battle area clearance was being conducted by DCA, FSD, and MAG as of mid-2011.[24]

Clearance of cluster munition contaminated areas in 2010

Libya has not reported on clearance of cluster munition remnants or other ERW in 2010 or in previous years, although as noted above, a commercial company cleared World War II submunitions and other ordnance in 2009. Due to the ongoing conflict, as of August 2011 the Monitor was not able to provide detailed information on the status of the clearance of cluster munition remnants. In July 2011, however, it was reported that MAG and DCA had found parts of a cluster munition casing and four unexploded submunitions at Al Dafaniya, west of Misrata, which were all subsequently destroyed.[25]

Other Risk Reduction Measures

To respond to the immediate threat from ERW, including cluster munition remnants, UNICEF and HI have initiated a mine/ERW RE program in Libya. As of July 2011, direct sessions with trained volunteers were underway in internally displaced person (IDP) camps in areas of eastern Libya, including Ajdabiya, Benghazi, and Misrata.[26] In addition, more than 30,000 information leaflets had been distributed to IDP communities in Ajdabiya, Benghazi, Brega, and Misrata in addition to Tunisian border areas.

Mosques, local radio stations, and civil society groups have also disseminated safety messages in their local communities.[27] As of mid-July, HI reported that it had intervened in 23 IDP camps in Benghazi, providing more than 2,000 people (mostly children) with emergency RE. Private companies, local authorities, and other associations have also benefited from RE.[28]

 



[1] See, for example, UN, “Joint Mine Action Coordination Team – Libya, Weekly Report #13,” 15 August 2011, p. 1, www.mineaction.org.

[2] See, for example, UNDP, “Capacity building to support the Demining Association and the Government of Libya in Mine Action activities,” Project summary, undated, www.undp-libya.org.

[3] Human Rights Watch, “Landmines in Libya: Technical Briefing Note,” 19 July 2011, www.hrw.org.

[4] Human Rights Watch, “Libya: Government Use of Landmines Confirmed, Rebel Forces Pledge Not to Use Mines,” 30 March 2011, www.hrw.org.

[5] Human Rights Watch, “Landmines in Libya: Technical Briefing Note,” 19 July 2011, www.hrw.org.

[6] See, for example,  Lourdes Garcia-Navarro, “For Libyan Rebels, Gadhafi’s Mines A Potent Obstacle,” NPR, 19 July 2011, www.npr.org

[7] Human Rights Watch, “Landmines in Libya: Technical Briefing Note,” 19 July 2011, www.hrw.org.

[8] Human Rights Watch, “Libya: Rebels Pledge Not to Use Landmines, Transitional Council Bans Antipersonnel, Antivehicle Mines,” 29 April 2011, www.hrw.org.

[9] For details, see ICBL-CMC, “Country Profile: Libya: Cluster Munition Ban Policy,” www.the-monitor.org, 14 September 2011. See also Human Rights Watch fact sheet: “Cluster Munition Use in Libya,” 27 June 2011, www.hrw.org; C. J. Chivers, “Qaddafi Troops Fire Cluster Bombs Into Civilian Areas,” New York Times, 15 April 2011, www.nytimes.com; and Human Rights Watch, “Libya: Cluster Munitions Strike Misrata,” Press release, 15 April 2011, www.hrw.org.

[10] MAG, “Libya: Assessment mission shows need for urgent response in Misrata,” 1 June 2011, www.maginternational.org.

[11] MAG, “Libya: Remnants of conflict continue to pose huge threat to civilians,” 22 June 2011, www.maginternational.org.

[12] See, for example, Daniel P. Bolger, Americans at War: 1975-1986, An Era of Violent Peace (Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1988), p. 423.

[13] Daily report by Jan-Ole Robertz, EOD Technical Advisor, Countermine Libya, 27 November 2009.

[14] UN, “Joint Mine Action Coordination Team – Libya, Weekly Report #13,” 15 August 2011, p. 1, www.mineaction.org.

[15] See, for example, UNDP, “UNDP Participates in International Conference on Demining for Development,” undated, www.undp-libya.org.

[16] Email from Abdulmonem Alaiwan, Administration and Public Relations Director, LDA, 22 September 2009.

[17] Email from Abdulmonem Alaiwan, Administration and Public Relations Director, LDA, 29 June 2009.

[18] UNDP, “Capacity Building to Support the Demining Association and the Government of Libya in its Demining Activities,” Project summary, undated, www.undp-libya.org.

[19] Email from Abdulmonem Alaiwan, LDA, 15 March 2010.

[20] UNMAS, “Joint Mine Action Coordination Team – Libya (JMACT),” undated but 2011, www.mineaction.org.

[21] Ibid.

[22] Interview with Dr. Taher Siala, Assistance Secretary, Ministry of Foreign Liaison and International Cooperation, in Tripoli, 12 May 2005.

[23] See, for example, Lourdes Garcia-Navarro, “For Libyan Rebels, Gadhafi’s Mines A Potent Obstacle,” NPR, 19 July 2011, www.npr.org

[24] See, for example, UN, “Joint Mine Action Coordination Team – Libya, Weekly Report #13,” 15 August 2011, p. 1, www.mineaction.org

[25] UN, “Joint Mine Action Coordination Team – Libya, Weekly Report # 9, 18 July 2011,” p. 4.

[26] HI, “Libye: Diffusion des messages de prévention contre les mines” (“Libya: Dissemination of mine risk education messages”), 12 July 2011, www.handicap-international.fr.

[27] Ibid.

[28] Ibid.


Last Updated: 14 September 2011

Casualties and Victim Assistance

Casualties Overview

All known casualties by end 2010

Unknown; estimates ranging from 1,852 to 12,258 mine/ERW casualties

Casualties in 2010

1 (2009: 12)

2010 casualties by outcome

1 injured (2009: 7 killed; 5 injured)

2010 casualties by device type

1 unknown explosive device

In 2010, the Monitor identified one new mine/explosive remnant of war (ERW) casualty in Libya. In January, an Egyptian man was injured by an unknown explosive device while in Libya.[1] Though only one casualty was confirmed for 2010, the Monitor expected there were more incidents that went unreported. Due to the ongoing conflict, it was difficult to gather information in Libya. In 2009, the Monitor identified 12 casualties in a single mine incident.[2]

The number of casualties from mine/ERW, including cluster munition remnants, is expected to be significantly higher in 2011. According to ICRC, over a period of six weeks in 2011, there were 13 reported casualties from ERW in Misrata alone.[3]

The total number of casualties in Libya is not known. The Libyan Demining Association (LDA)[4] and the Libyan Civil Defense Department had registered 1,852 mine casualties by the end of 2006. Previous estimates were approximately 12,000, with the Libyan police reporting 11,845 casualties between 1940 and 1995 (6,749 killed; 5,096 injured) and the Libyan Jihad Center for Historical Studies reporting 12,258 (3,874 killed; 8,384 injured) between 1952 and 1975.[5]

 



[1] “Information collected by Protection and Mine Action and Human Rights Foundation in Egypt,” by email from Ayman Sorour, Director, Protection, 11 April 2011.

[2] “Gambia: 7 Gambians Die in Sahara Desert…as Vehicle Hits Landmine,” The Daily Observer (Banjul), 19 February 2009, observer.gm; and Nfamara Jawneh, “Seven Gambian Youths Die along Niger-Libya Border,” The Point (Banjul), 19 February 2009, thepoint.gm.

[3] UNICEF,“UNICEF Situation Report # 19 – Sub-regional Libya crisis,” 29 June 2011, reliefweb.int.

[4] The LDA, part of the Gaddafi International Charity and Development Foundation (GICDF), was formerly known as the Anti-Mines Association.

[5] Ahmed Besharah, “World War II mines planted in Libya and its socio-economic impact,” Libyan Jihad Center for Historical Studies, Tripoli, 1995, p.153.