The Lao People’s
Democratic Republic (Laos) has not signed the 1997 Mine Ban Treaty, despite the
fact that in December 1994 Laos was one of the first governments to call
publicly for an immediate, comprehensive ban on antipersonnel
landmines.[1] Laos did not
participate in any of the treaty preparatory meetings, did not endorse the
pro-treaty Brussels Declaration in June 1997, and did not attend the treaty
negotiations in Oslo in September even as an observer. Laos came as an observer
to the treaty signing conference in December 1997 at the invitation of the
Canadian government, but did not make a statement. Laos was absent from the
votes on pro-ban resolutions in the UN General Assembly in 1996, 1997, and 1998.
Phonesavanh Chantavilay, the chief of the Laotian Foreign Ministry’s
United Nations Division, has said that the main reason Laos has not signed is
its concern that it would not be able to meet the treaty’s deadline for
destruction of mines in the
ground.[2] Another observer has
said that Laos is likely to stay out of the treaty as long as China and Vietnam
are not a part.[3] One
confidential source told Landmine Monitor, “They thought it was difficult
for small, poor countries to do away with one of their only cheap means of
defense....They consider mines as one of their only economically viable
options.”[4]
Laos acceded to the Convention on Conventional Weapons on 3 January 1983, but
has not ratified the amended Protocol II on landmines.
Production, Transfer, Stockpiling, Use
Laos is not thought to have ever produced or
exported antipersonnel mines. Laos is believed to maintain a stockpile of
mines, but no details are available. There are no allegations of recent use of
antipersonnel mines by Laotian armed forces.
The Landmine/UXO Problem
The Lao People’s Democratic Republic suffered
intense ground battles as well as extensive bombing during the Indochina War
era, especially during the period from 1964 to 1973. The fighting left a legacy
of widespread contamination by unexploded ordnance (UXO) and landmines, that
still cause death and injury more than 20 years after the war ended.
It has been estimated that Laos suffers from more than 9 million unexploded
“bombies” (mostly BLU-26 bomblets) dropped by the U.S. Bombies
become de facto anti-personnel mines when they do not explode on impact
due to some technical reason, e.g., they were dropped at the wrong height or did
not arm themselves properly. In such circumstances they remain a threat for
years or even decades.[5] The
primary threat to civilians in Laos is this unexploded ordnance, not
antipersonnel mines, though both are present. To the civilian population, there
is little or no difference between the two -- they will likely explode if
stepped on, kicked, or handled improperly.
In 1997, Handicap International (HI) released the results of a national
survey it conducted on the impact of UXO and landmines in Laos. It is one of
the most detailed surveys ever conducted on UXO/mine contamination in any
country. Much of this Landmine Monitor report is drawn from that
document.[6] The reader is
referred to that full document, as well as a much longer Laos country report
prepared by the Landmine Monitor researcher, for much greater detail than there
is space to reprint here.
HI reports, “The presence of landmines was reported in all provinces
surveyed. More than 1,000 villages reported the presence of landmines in the
past with 214 villages currently reporting landmine
contamination.”[7] Over
3,800 villages, with a population of 1.3 million people, had been affected by
UXO and mines. HI also states, “To date, clearance operations have
concentrated in areas where there are few landmines. However, it is expected
that when clearance operation expand, the risk of encountering landmines will
increase.” [8] In 1996,
the UN estimated that 500,000 tons of UXO were still present in
Laos.[9]
Mine Clearance
In 1994, the first UXO/landmine removal project was
initiated by the Mines Advisory Group in Xieng Khoung, one of the most affected
provinces in Laos.[10] In
February 1996 a Prime Ministerial degree (49/PM) established the Lao National
UXO Program (UXO Lao) to coordinate all UXO related activities. Its main tasks
are: (1) create a national capacity for UXO activities; (2) implement a national
UXO strategy and demining projects; (3) coordinate UXO clearance, awareness and
survey projects throughout the country. Operations were first conducted in
three affected provinces, then in 1997 were expanded into an additional five
provinces, and recently a ninth province was
added.[11] The Lao PDR
ambassador to the UN has said, “By the year 1999 if all goes well as
planned, the UXO offices will be established in all the 13 affected provinces,
the Vientiane prefecture and the Saysomboune Special
Zone.”[12]
According to UXO Lao’s 1997 Annual Report, in 1997 159 hectares of land
were cleared, and a total of 43,098 items of ordnance, including 251 landmines,
were destroyed. In 1998, through October, 239 hectares of land were cleared,
and over 58,000 pieces or ordnance, including 222 mines, were
destroyed.[13] It has been
noted, though, that the “National headquarters does not have sufficient
tracking systems in place to determine if land cleared is eventually used for
humanitarian, development or commercial
purpose.”[14]
In the HI survey, 55 villages nationwide reported some kind of clearance
operation in the area of the village, with about 50 percent of these areas being
cleared by the Lao army. The army indicates that it has cleared important
national roads, schools, wats and other sites to be used for the construction of
buildings, irrigation schemes or public utilities. The Chinese army also
assisted Chinese road builders in the north to clear areas around National Route
1.
The Mines Advisory Group has been working in Xieng Khouang since October 1994
and Saravane since July 1997. In Xieng Khouang, clearance teams were deployed
to 47 different sites during 1997. The majority of sites were areas where
schools were going to be built, improved or expanded. In Saravane, clearance
teams have worked at the main provincial school, and at the airport where
landmines were found around the perimeter. In both locations 228 AP mines and
13 antitank mines have been
destroyed.[15]
Handicap International started clearance operations in Savannaketh in July
1997. Teams cleared 1.62 hectares of land including schools, agricultural land
and the site of a government guest house.
Norwegian People’s Aid started clearance operations in Attapeu in
February 1998, clearing 2.5 hectares of agriculture land, and in Sekong in
October 1997, clearing 1.9 hectares of land on the site of a government
office.
Milsearch is a commercial ordnance clearance company that has been working in
the Lao PDR, usually under contract. Most of its clients are private companies
(Lane Xang Minerals, Phu Bia Mining Ltd, Laos Hunt Oil Company and
CGG-Exploration Logistics) as well as the Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare.
The company has been performing reconnaissance and clearance activities in eight
provinces of Laos including Savannaketh, Luang Phrabang, Houaphan, Bolikhamay,
Xieng Khouang, Attapeu, Khammonuane and Champassak. The company has worked on
reconnaissance and clearance of grid lines and drill pads for mining companies,
land use for village relocation, hydro construction sites, and road and bridge
construction sites.
In 1991 to 1992, Hunt Oil conducted a UXO verification survey prior to
exploration which covered the four southern provinces (Saravane, Champassak,
Sekong and Attapeu). The work was done in co-operation with the British firm
CGG-Exploration Logistics. This company found numerous types of ordnance and 264
U.S. and Soviet-design landmines, including these types: M2A1, M2A4, M14, M16,
POMZ-1, POMZ-2.[16]
The German company Gerbera has carried out UXO/landmines clearance work in
Houaphan since November 1996 and in Luang Prabang since April 1998. In Houaphan
province the work initially concentrated in Viengxay district, which is one of
the key development zones in the Province, and in the second half of the year
extended to two more districts. In 1997, clearance teams worked at 43 sites,
including the sites of 7 schools, an orphanage in Han Long, the central square
of Viengxay, a wat, the Viengxay Hospital, agriculture land, and areas for
housing and gardens. Clearance work extended to Sam Neya district in the second
half of the year.
The Belgian Army started clearance in Champassak in September 1997, clearing
15.93 hectares of land.
Mine/UXO Awareness
The Lao National UXO Program has established a
Community Awareness (CA) section within the national organization. The
objectives of the CA section are to create a new awareness among the rural
communities of the continued danger of UXO, and to educate villagers on ways to
minimize the hazard caused by UXO. Since 1996, 843 villages have been visited,
and more than 207,000 people educated. Today CA activities are being
implemented in nine provinces with 14 CA Teams and 94 CA
Staff.[17] The budget for
community awareness in 1998 was U.S.$200,000.
Organizations working on mine/UXO awareness include Consortium, Gerbera,
Mennonite Central Committee, Mines Advisory Group, Norwegian People’s Aid,
and UNICEF.
Training
Mine Action training and capacity building has been
carried out by personnel from the UN, other governments, and non-governmental
organizations. Four groups of U.S. instructors have conducted training at the
Nam Souang Training Centre. Since 1996, 706 Laotians have graduated from
training courses, mostly in UXO clearance, but also in community awareness,
medic, team leaderership, and other
areas.[18] Expenditures on
training and equipment totaled U.S.$1.4 million in 1996, $3 million in 1997, and
$5.4 million in 1998.[19]
Mine Action Funding
In 1995 the Lao government, with assistance from
UNDP and UNICEF, established a Trust Fund for unexploded ordnance, in order to
finance a nationwide program of UXO clearance and awareness. To date more than
$5 million in cash and more than $8 million in in-kind contributions have been
pledged to the Trust Fund. “Overall annual resource mobilization targets
for 1998 are U.S.$15.8 million to be received either as cash grant or as
contribution in-kind, without which UXO operations will not be sustainable in
the future,” said Laos’s UN
ambassador.[20]
According to the Handicap International survey
report, “Landmines were reported in every province in Laos and are
responsible for 11 percent of accidents. In 12 percent of recorded accidents,
the type of UXO or landmines was ‘Unknown’ because the victim died
immediately or did not see the type of UXO or landmine that
detonated.”[22]
From 1973-1996, 1,171 people suffered landmine accidents, and another 9,473
suffered from UXO accidents. “Data from the survey clearly shows the
national trend in accident figures during the period from 1973 to 1996.
One-third of all recorded UXO accidents occurred in the first four years
following the war (1973-1976). During these four years, Laos experienced 1,100
UXO-related accidents per year, an average of three accidents per day. In the
following ten years (1977 to 1986), the annual casualty rate declined to 360, an
average of one accident per day. From 1987 to 1996, the annual casualty rate
remained constant, averaging about 240 accidents per
year.”[23]
Of the 10,649 recorded UXO/landmine accident victims,59 percent are adult
men. Young boys make up 27 percent of the accident victims, women 10 percent,
and young girls 4 percent.
The percentage of children involved in UXO/landmine-related accidents is
increasing. Children represent more than one-third of recent accident figures as
compared to one-fifth of accidents in the period following the war. In the
majority of accidents involving children, the victims are
male.[24]
The average age of people having accidents with UXO/landmines was 26 years
old, and the majority of these victims were aged between 5 and
35.[25]
The most frequent activity resulting in an accident was the handling of UXO
(24%), followed by agricultural activities (22%), collecting forest products
(14%), and domestic activities (12%).
The most common disability caused was amputation (65%), followed by paralysis
(13%), loss of eyesight (9%), burns (7%) and loss of hearing (5%).
Survivor Assistance
The survey found 2,481 people with upper or lower
limb amputations, but only 44 of these people reported the use of
prosthesis.[26] There is no
current production of upper limb prostheses in Laos. Most of the devices only
reach people living close to the provincial capitals, whereas most areas
affected by UXO and landmines are more isolated and
remote.[27] There is no
standard follow-up for amputees receiving prostheses from the six centers
functioning in Laos.[28]
Of those casualties who managed to survive the initial accident and resulting
trauma, nearly half made it to the hospital for treatment. Fifty percent of
survivors did not choose to go to the hospital after the accident. Rather,
villagers treated and took care of the person in the village with no medical
intervention. As a result, villagers have developed ways of coping with injuries
if the district or provincial hospital is inaccessible or too expensive.
Among the agencies providing assistance to UXO and landmine victims in Laos
are: Consortium in Xien Khouang, Health Frontiers in Xieng Khouang, Handicap
International at Mahasot Hospital in Vientiane, DED (German Development
Service) at the National Rehabilitation Center, World Concern in Saravane
Province, World Vision in Xieng Khouang and Savannaketh.
Two thirds of people with UXO/landmine related disabilities are still working
in their fields, according to the HI survey results, with only 10 percent of
surviving victims rendered inactive by their injuries. Most people appear to be
supported by their families and are able to return to the fields.
The ability of Lao communities to remain inclusive of mine/UXO survivors is
further supported by survey data on the marital status of people disabled by
bomb or landmines. Only 19 percent of single, disabled people did not marry
after the accident, which is just slightly higher than the percentage of single
people in the general Lao population. The figures reported for men and women
were not significantly different, although anecdotal evidence indicates that
disabled women are more marginalized than men.
The Lao Disabled Peoples Associationwas formed in 1997. Draft rules
and regulations were approved by the government. The association has requested
the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare to draft a national law in support of
the rights of disabled
people.[29]
Note to Readers: A much longer country report on Laos has been prepared
for Landmine Monitor which could not be used in full due to space
considerations. It contains much greater detail on the landmine/UXO problem,
casualties, clearance, and survivor assistance programs. The full report is
available upon request. The full Laos country report also contains these
appendices:
App 1 Map of Landmine in Lao PDR
App 2 Logistics prevent Laos from signing mine pact
Deputy Foreign Minister meets Canadian Mine Action
Ambassador
App 3 Number of the villages affected by mine
App 4 Map of UXO Lao activities 1998
App 5 Cash contributions committed to the Trust Fund during
The period 1 January – 31 December 1997
App 6 In-kind contributions received and pledged to 31 December 1997
App 7 In-kind and bilateral commitment to UXO Lao during the period 1
January – 31 December 1997
App 8 Contributions received by UXO Lao
App 9 Summary of Ca activities 1 January –31 December 1997
App10 Summary of activities coordinated by UXO Lao
[1] Statement to 47th UN
General Assembly, December 1994.
[2] Bangkok Post,
“Logistics Prevent Laos from Signing Mine Pact,” 30 June 1998. In
the article, the official wrongly cites the deadline as four years, which
applies to stockpiled mines, not those in the ground (for which the deadline is
ten years, with possible extension for another ten).
[5] Jim Monan, Curse of
the Bombies: A Case Study of Saravan Province, Laos (Hong Kong: Oxfam Hong
Kong, 1998), p. 14.
[6] Handicap
International, Living with UXO: Final Report National Survey on the
Socio-Economic Impact of UXO in Lao PDR,1997. The survey covered 86
districts in 15 provinces, at the village level. It was a Level 1 survey as
defined by the International Standard for Humanitarian Demining. Survey teams
collected quantitative data in 7,675 villages. The villages covered by the
survey had a population of more than 2.5 million people, or over half the
county’s total population.
[7] Handicap
International, Living with UXO, 1997, p. 7.
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