Swedish discussion on landmines gathered momentum in 1993, when several
Swedish nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), largely as a result of
international attention to landmines, started to highlight the issue. The
landmine problem was of course not new, but no real discussion about the
legitimacy of landmines or a possible ban of the weapon had occurred prior to
1993. One of the first responses in Sweden to the growing concern around the use
of landmines, was a declaration by the arms manufacturer Bofors in October 1993.
The company stated that it would no longer manufacture AP mines.
Also, in 1993, following the lead of France, Sweden together with that
country and the Netherlands submitted a resolution to UN General Assembly,
requesting a review conference on Convention on Conventional Weapons (CCW) and
its Protocol II on mines. At that time Swedish policy was that the landmine
problem should be tackled through restrictions on the export of mines and by
strengthening the CCW. But this policy was increasingly questioned as Parliament
began to take up the issue.
On 2 June 1994, Parliament finally decided that "Sweden in connection with
the review conference (of the CCW) should declare that an international
prohibition against AP mines is the only real solution to the humanitarian
problem caused by the use of mines. Sweden should in this connection present
proposals to achieve such a prohibition."
Following the decision in Parliament, the Swedish government formally
presented a proposal for an international prohibition on the production,
transfer, stockpiling and use of AP mines, at a meeting in August 1994 of
governmental experts preparing for the review conference of the CCW. While this
proposal made Sweden the first country during the review process to formally
present a text calling for a total ban on AP mines, the government did not
seriously push this option and it was withdrawn during the review conference in
Vienna in October 1995.
Parallel with the review process of the CCW, the landmine debate in Sweden
continued, and by the end of 1994, the issue of a unilateral Swedish ban on AP
mines emerged. In response to a question in Parliament in October 1994, the
Swedish Defense Minister declared that - while Sweden was firm in its support
for an international ban on AP mines - a unilateral Swedish ban would have no
effect at all at the international level while considerably weakening the
Swedish defense capability. The position of the Defense Minister was challenged
by various organizations and parliamentarians and public pressure for a ban
continued to build. On 13 December 1996, the Swedish Parliament imposed a
unilateral ban, prohibiting the use of AP mines, and requiring the destruction
of all AP mines before the end of
2001.[2]
Despite this national position, Sweden was a surprisingly lukewarm
participant in the Ottawa Process. Not a member of the Ottawa Process core
group, Sweden was largely quiet throughout and then during the Oslo negotiations
offered a proposal to increase the number of ratifications necessary for the MBT
to enter into force to 60 (the number settled on, of course, was 40) which was
certainly not viewed by the ICBL as “ban friendly.”
Sweden signed the Mine Ban Treaty in Ottawa 3 December 1997. On 5 February
1998 the Swedish Government informed the UN Secretary General that the general
obligations under Article 1.1 were applicable, according to Article 18 of the
Treaty. The Treaty was ratified on 25 November 1998 and the instruments of
ratification deposited at the United Nations on 30 November 1998. At the time of
ratification the Swedish parliament reaffirmed applicability of the treaty under
Article 18.[3]
Sweden has ratified the CCW, both the original Protocol 2 and the revised
1996 Protocol 2 (ratified in July
1997).[4] In 1997 Sweden
submitted a resolution 52/42, to the UN General Assembly First Committee,
whereby the member states were urged to ratify the revised 1996 Protocol 2 on
mines. Sweden supported Resolution 52/38 H, submitted by Finland together with,
among others, Australia, Russia and US on negotiating a ban on mine transfer in
the CD. While Sweden is focusing on the work to get as many signatories as
possible to the Ottawa Convention rather than negotiating a ban on transfers, it
will not oppose a ban on transfer in the CD as long as the criteria and
definitions used are at least as strict as those used in the Ottawa
Convention.[5]
Production
Explosives have been the Swedish industry's most
important contribution to global AP mine production. The Swedish companies FFV,
Bofors and LIAB, produced and developed 21 different types of AP mines since
World War II. The major part of the production was transferred to the Swedish
Armed Forces.[6]
- Airfield blast mine made from wood, not considered by the army to be an AP
mine but designed to destroy landing planes. Destroyed (Discarded);
- AP 12 directional fragmentation mine. To be remodeled for
command-detonation only;
- M-11 bounding, fragmentation mine. Will be destroyed;
- M-12 fragmentation mine. To be remodeled for command-detonation only;
- M-46 cardboard blast mine. Its stockpile status is unknown;
- M-41 wooden blast mine. Will be destroyed;
- M-43 cardboard blast mine. Its stockpile status is unknown;
- M-43T cardboard blast mine. Its stockpile status is unknown;
- M-48 fragmentation mine. Will be destroyed;
- M-49 cardboard blast mine. Destroyed;
- M-49B cardboard blast mine. Will be destroyed;
- M-43 (47mm) fragmentation mine. Destroyed;
- M-43 (80mm) fragmentation mine. Will be destroyed;
- M-43T (1-cm) fragmentation mine. Will be destroyed;
- Model 43 & 43(t) made from concrete and metal. Will be destroyed;
- Truppmina 9 fragmentation mine. Will be destroyed;
- FFV013 directional fragmentation Claymore mine. Not considered AP;
- FFV013R directional fragmentation Claymore mine. Not considered AP;
- Mina 5. Not considered AP;
- LI-11 plastic mine. Will be destroyed;
- LI-12 directional fragmentation. To be remodeled for command-detonation
only.
The Swedish government has stated that Sweden has not produced or exported AP
mines since 1974.[8] According
to a report on mines that SPAS issued in 1994, Bofors produced Truppmina 12
(Claymore) mines until 1992. Furthermore, FFV 013, which is the commercial
notation for the Fordonsmina 13 (Claymore), which officially is an antitank
mine, still belongs to Bofors product program. In 1994 The Inspectorate-General
of Military Equipment (KMI) told SPAS, "(T)he mine (FFV 013) cannot be
categorized as an antitank mine, but?should be categorized as
antipersonnel."[9] Both
Truppmina 12 and Fordonsmina 13 offer command and tripwire detonation
options.
The Swedish Armed Forces have nine different types of AP mines in stock, all
of which will be destroyed before the end of 2001. Sweden is not engaged in
developing alternatives to AP mines. This is due to financial constraints on
the armed forces and the fact that Sweden is dismantling traditional territorial
defenses against foreign military invasion. So there are neither funds nor the
need for developing alternatives to APM in the Swedish Armed
Forces.[10]
Transfer
The Swedish export of AP mines has been limited,
mostly consisting of mine
components.[11] But Bofors did
export large numbers of AP mines to Germany in the 1950s and 1960s. Switzerland
purchased AP mines from Bofors from 1958 to 1964, and more than one million
mines in 1971.[12] The company
exported 33,000 Mina 5 to Pakistan in 1958. Some reports indicate that these
mines, apparently resold by Pakistan many years later, were deployed by
mujahadin guerillas in
Afghanistan.[13]
Bofors is also known to have sold 573 tons of explosives (RDX) to the Italian
industry Valsella 1981-1983. Another 670 tons of explosives were sold to
Valsella via the French company SNPE. Arms researchers believe that the
explosives transferred to Valsella were used in mines exported to Iraq. Some of
this explosive, shipped via Singapore, was later found in Singapore-assembled
mines in Cambodia. Bofors exported more than 750 tons of explosives to the
Portuguese industry SPEL 1982-1984 and 231 tons of explosives to the industry
FDSP in Yugoslavia 1985.[14]
As noted above, the Swedish government says that APMs have neither been
produced or exported since 1974. This is accurate. But apart from large
amounts of exports of explosives, Sweden has also exported Fordonsmina 13 and
13R (FFV 013 and 013R), which is a Claymore-type mine with tripwire detonation
options, to Norway (1978), Ireland (1987), Japan (1990) and Switzerland
(1991?).[15]
Stockpiling
The Government has declared that the stockpile of
AP mines will be destroyed before the end of 2001, except for small numbers of
AP mines retained for R&D and training purposes. Sweden has started to
destroy its stockpile of AP mines, but the number of mines in stockpile remains
classified. According to an official at the Swedish Armed Forces HQ there was a
discussion during the fall of 1998 if the data should be made public. It was
decided that it "was not meaningful to make the data public
now,"[16] as the information
will be reported to the United Nations as required by Article 7 by September
1999. So, according to the official, the data on numbers of APM in stockpile,
cost of destruction, location, numbers of APMs being retained for training
purposes and so on will be classified until Sweden informs the UN Secretary
General.[17]
Nevertheless some information has been available. The agency responsible for
the destruction of APMs, the Defense Materiel Administration (FMV), put out a
bid for the destruction of Truppmina 10 mines on the European market in May
1998. There are strict instructions concerning safety and environmental
standards for the destruction process. The Swedish Company NAMMO LIAB (former
Bofors) received the contract due to its high environmental standards for
destruction and for its low cost. In December 1998 another bid was put out for
destruction of the remaining APMs. The eight other types of AP mines to be
destroyed are: Trampmina m/41, Trampmina m/49B, Betongmina m/43T, Granatmina 8
cm, Granatmina 10 cm, Truppmina 9, Truppmina 11 and Splittermina m/48. NAMMO
LIAB will destroy these AP mines
too.[18]
A dismantling technique will be used to destroy the APMs and recycle the
parts. The explosives (Trotyl), for example, will be used in the mining industry
to blast away rocks. No recycled parts will be used for military purposes. FMV
requires the company to recycle at least 80 percent of the explosives and NAMMO
LIAB will recycle at least 90 percent of all dismantled
parts.[19]
According to an official at FMV there are some 3 million AP mines to be
destroyed before the end of year 2001. Truppmina 10 accounts for 2.5 million of
these mines. The total cost of destruction is estimated to 25.5 million SEK
(US$3.2 million).[20] In
December 1998 approximately 315,000 Truppmina 10 were
destroyed.[21] The destruction
of the other mines will begin in February or March 1999.
No decision has yet been made as to how many APMs will be retained for
training purposes. The decision is to be taken sometime during the year 2000.
The armed forces have declared that it needs 3-4 APMs for every group that is
trained for demining. Currently, approximately 10 groups are trained each year.
An additional 1-2 mines are needed for every training site and year. The
determining factor, though, is how many APMs will be required for extensive
testing of mechanical demining devices. As yet, that number has not be
deteremined. The armed forces will test Bofors´ "Mine-Guzzler" during 1999
and after that it will be possible to estimate how many AP mines are needed for
every test. Then there will be a testing of the mechanical demining device from
Countermine Technologies and maybe three more tests in the coming ten-year
period.[22] The location of the
retained AP mines will not be public in the future, as they might be desirable
to some groups, e.g.
criminals.[23]
Use
The Swedish Armed Forces uses four Claymore-type
mines: the AP mines Truppmina 12 and 12B and the antivehicle-mines Fordonsmina
13 and 13R. Truppmina 12 and 12B are directional, fragmentation mines that are
usually used as an ambush or tripwire-triggered mine against uncovered troops.
These mines can be fired by firing device 12 or by a pull wire or by a
tripwire.[24] Fordonsmina 13
and 13R are directional fragmentation mines for use against vehicles,
helicopters and aircraft on the ground and for troops. The mine is fired by a
firing device or by a tripwire. The difference between the Fordonsmina 13 and 13
R is that the 13 R is lighter in weight to make it easier for the soldier to
use.[25]
As mentioned above, Fordonsmina 13 and 13R are officially antivehicle-mines,
but are also described as useful against troops. According to the instructions,
the tripwire for Fordonsmina 13 and 13R should be attached two meters from the
ground, in which case they would be intended for vehicles larger than a regular
car.[26]
The Swedish Armed Forces will continue to use a modified version of Truppmina
12 and 12B (Claymore), now called Försvarsladdning 21 and 22. FMV has put
out on order for the remodeling of Truppmina 12 and 12B to ensure that they can
be used in command-detonated mode only. The remodeling will start 1 September
1999 and will be completed before the end of November 2000. There is no
technical data yet available for the modified Truppmina 12 or
12B.[27]
The antivehicle-mines Fordonsmina 13 and 13R (Claymore), are not intended to
be modified for command-detonated mode only. Sweden is interpreting the Ottawa
Convention as not to include Fordonsmina 13 and 13R as they are designed to be
detonated by the presence of a vehicle. Furthermore, as one official said,
"These mines are not a problem in the world. I would not recommend that anyone
use the mine against troops or by tripwire detonation. They are very expensive
to use and the tripwire mechanism is not suitable even for
vehicles."[28]
The work to update materials and instructions concerning Swedish landmines
has just started. "Every publication and operation instruction that contains AP
mines or tripwire mines?will be updated or discarded. FMV is at the moment
updating several publications that contain AP mines for the armed
forces."[29]
The Swedish Armed forces has the following antitank and antivehicle mines at
its disposal:
- Stridsvagnsmina m/41-47;
- Stridsvagnsmina m/47;
- Stridsvagnsmina m/47-52;
- Stridsvagnsmina m/52;
- Stridsvagnsmina 5 (When adapted with Fire device 15 -- antenna mode -- it
is very sensitive to contact);
On 10 February 1999, Swedish Foreign Minister Anna
Lind gave a speech in the Swedish Parliament outlining Swedish foreign policy
for 1999. In that speech she said that Sweden "has a leading role in the work
for demining and for support to mine
victims."[31]
The Swedish International Development Agency, SIDA, is responsible for
funding of humanitarian aid and other international humanitarian projects, such
as mine victim assistance and rehabilitation. SIDA has provided data on its
support for mine action, specifying every project, channel and for what action
(i.e. demining, awareness and rehabilitation) for the years 1990-1998.
SIDA’s fact sheet shows that Sweden devoted 417 million SEK ($52.1
million) for the period 1990-1998 to support mine action. The funding has
increased every year and amounts to 133 million SEK ($16.6) for 1998. Of these
funds, 30 million SEK ($3.75 million) is for technical development. The absolute
majority of support has gone to mine clearance, while minor allocations have
gone to awareness and rehabilitation
projects..[32]
The fact sheet provided by Sida shows that the support has mainly been
channeled to:
- Angola, 41.1 million SEK (NPA, WFP, UNAWEM III, UNICEF, UNDP/INAROEE);
- Mozambique, 53.4 million SEK (UNDP, ADP-fund, CND, NPA, HI);
- Afghanistan, 105.4 million SEK (UNOCHA);
- Northern Iraq, 48.9 million SEK (MAG);
- Cambodia, 77.8 million SEK (MAG, UNDP TF, CMAC);
- Laos, 13.7 million SEK (MAG, UXO, UNDP, UNDP TF);
- Bosnia Herzegovina, 12.0 million SEK (DBKO/BHMAC, NPA, UNOPS/BHMAC);
- Honduras, 12.1 million SEK (Govn/OAS);
- Nicaragua, 12.9 million SEK (Govn/OAS);
- Costa Rica, 1.1 million SEK (Govn/OAS);
- International Coordination, 7,5 million SEK (DHA);
- R&D, other studies, 31.4 million SEK (MAG, FMV, FOA).
Landmine Survivor Assistance
SIDA funding for 1998 or 1999 does not mention
support for mine victims.[33]
When it comes to actual support for mine victims all of it goes through ICRC.
Swedish general support to ICRC throughout the world was 208 million SEK ($26
million) in 1998. The responsible official at SIDA estimates that a maximum of
10 percent of the general support is related to the production of artificial
limbs, mine victim assistance and
rehabilitation.[34] When this
was checked with ICRC it was found that the Swedish government responded to the
ICRC´s special appeal for mine victim assistance launched in 1997 and 1998
with 500,000 SEK ($62,500) for 1997 and with no support at all for
1998.[35]
This contradiction -- that SIDA indicates 100 percent of the Swedish
support to mine victims goes via ICRC and that the ICRC says that 100 percent of
its mine related work for 1998 is financed by the contributions to its special
appeal – remains quite unclear.
Mine Clearance
During 1998, the Swedish Armed Forces spent some
70 million SEK ($8.75 million) to prepare for and/or conducting mine clearance
in conjunction with different international missions. Mainly this is broken down
to 10 million SEK for research on ground penetrating radar conducted by the
Defense Research Establishment, FOA; 40 million SEK has been spent for a Swedish
EOD and demining battalion in Bosnia; 10 million SEK is related to a demining
mission in the Western Sahara and 7 million SEK for demining training at SWEDEC.
The 70 million SEK spent on mine clearance corresponds to 0.17 percent of the
armed forces budget.
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs spent 25 million SEK ($ 3.1 million) on the
demining mission in the Western Sahara.
During 1999, the Swedish Rescue Service Agency, SRV, will begin a program to
support development and testing of different demining projects and plans to
become a prominent demining actor. SRV intends to spend some 20 million SEK
($2.5 million) on its programs for
1999.[36]
Additionally, there are a number of research projects underway, which are
fully or partly financed by different companies or institutions. FOA is
studying a method for chemical analysis based on mass spectrometry to define the
detection levels of different types of explosives. In 1998 FOA asked for 7.5
million SEK from the Defense Ministry to conduct a three-year joint project with
the Norwegian Defense R&D Institute, FFI. SRV decided to co-finance the
project.[37]
The Swedish Armed Forces Dog Instruction Center trains mine dogs, both in
Sweden and in Cambodia.
The company Biosensor Application Sweden AB is developing an "artificial
dog-nose" biosensor to detect mines containing the explosive TNT. It is a
private company, which partly has been financed by the Foreign Ministry in a
joint project with FOA for developing a multi sensor. SRV has decided to
cofinance the biosensor project. The Norwegian FFI is discussing support for the
project as well.[38]
FOA is leading a project to develop a multi sensor, consisting of the
biosensor from Biosensor Applications, a metal-detector from CelsiusTech
Electronics and ground penetrating radar from FOA. The project is due to being
completed before the end of
1999.[39] Celsius AB has
received 30 million SEK ($ 3.75 million) from the European Union to develop a
multi sensor, based upon the FOA project but without the
biosensor.[40]
As noted previously, Bofors has developed a mechanical demining device, which
can be compared to a huge rotary cultivator, the Mine-Guzzler. SWEDEC and SRV
intend to test the device during
1999.[41] The private company
Countermine Technologies has developed a similar device and intends to conduct
demining operations on
contract.[42]
Swedish Non-Governmental Mine Action Activities
Since 1993 the Swedish Peace and Arbitration Society (SPAS) has supported the
Mines Advisory Group in Iraqi Kurdistan. Initially, SPAS raised funds for
MAG’s mine clearance project in Choman; subsequently its support has
mainly been devoted to MAG’s mine awareness project for children. Today
SPAS lectures in schools about the mine problem and ICBL, and has produced a
photo-exhibition about MAG’s mine awareness activities in Iraqi Kurdistan.
In late 1998 SPAS began a newsletter concerning Swedish mine clearance efforts.
The newsletter reaches every interested partner in Sweden, the Defense and
Foreign Ministries, R&D agencies, companies, journalists, governmental
agencies and NGOs.
The Swedish Committee for Afghanistan (SCA) is one of the major NGO actors in
mine action. Since 1991 SCA has cooperated with UN on the Disabled Afghans
Project. SCA has spent some 10 million SEK ($1.2 million) each year on mine
victim assistance. Additionally it runs an extensive mine awareness program via
the 650 schools it supports. SCA estimates that the program reaches
approximately one million
individuals.[43]
Radda Barnen (Swedish Save the
Children)[44] works in different
ways to support those who have been affected by mines or live in mine affected
areas. In Afghanistan and in Yemen Radda Barnen runs a rehabilitation program
and a mine awareness program. In Yemen, it initiated a program to teach
children how to teach other children about the dangers of landmines. Radda
Barnen also supports mine clearance missions at playgrounds in Afghanistan. In
the years leading up to the Mine Ban Treaty, Radda Barnenn was a key actor in
the ICBL, serving as a member of its steering committee. The organization
arranges seminars and other activities in Sweden and abroad to highlight the
landmine issue. Currently Radda Barnen’s involvement in the landmine
issue is a part of their work for children in war. The total budget for its
international work for children in war and refugee children was 25 million SEK
($3.1 millions) in 1998. Only a small part of that is directly for mine related
work.
The Swedish Red Cross runs a mine awareness project in Mozambique worth 2.5
million SEK ($ 0.3 million).
Forum Syd[45], an umbrella
organization for international aid conducted by Swedish NGOs, has workers in
Cambodia engaged in the rehabilitation of mine victims. Forum Syd continued the
support in relation to a mine awareness campaign. In the spring of 1999 Forum
Syd is arranging a seminar on mine clearance. Forum Syd is involved in the
support to the organization Kurdistan Solidarity and their mine clearance
programs in Iraqi Kurdistan.
[1]This
section is partly drawn from the study made by Radda Barnen (Swedish Save the
Children) in 1996: Carl von Essen, Minrapport (Radda Barnen, 1996), web
version www.rb.se/kampanj/mine1.html.
[5]Email from the Swedish
Foreign Ministry, 19 January 1999.
[6]Lars Jederlund,
Dödens Fält - Om minor och dess offer (Deadly Fields - Mines
and their victims), (Stockholm, Svenska Freds, 1994), p. 11.
[7]Lars Jederlund,
Dödens Fält - Om minor och dess offer (Deadly Fields - Mines
and their victims), (Stockholm, Svenska Freds, 1994), p. 11; and also U.S.
Department of Defense, “Mine Facts,” CD Rom.
[18]Telephone interview with
Anna-Helena Brandt, FMV, 8 January 1999. We tried to get copies of the orders
but they were classified. The list of AP mines that are to be destroyed was
published in an internal magazine for FMV (Vi I FMV #7/98).
[19]Telephone interview with
Hugo Kreij, Branch Manager, NAMMO LIAB, 21 January 1999.
[20]Telephone interview with
Anna-Helena Brandt, FMV, 8 January 1999.
[30]Bestrivnig
Landminmateriel, FMV, 1996, pp. 7-146.
[31]Speech by Swedish Foreign
Minister Anna Lind in the Swedish Parliament, 10 February 1999.
[32]Swedish International
Development Agency, Support to Demining 1990-1998, Fact Sheet, December
1998.
[33]UD97/1827/IC
Regleringsbrev för budgetaret 1998 avseende anslag genom Styrelsen för
internationellt utvecklingsarbete (Sida) and UD/98/1567/IC Regleringsbrev
för budgetaret 1999 avseende anslag genom Styrelsen för
internationellt utvecklingsarbete (Sida) (The Governments directives for SIDA
1998 and 1999.)
[34]Telephone interview with
Peter Swartling, Division for Humanitarian Assistance, SIDA, 20 January
1999.
[35]Fax from ICRC, Mines-Arms
Unit, 19 February 1999; follow-up phone interview with Mr Julier, Deputy Head of
External Resources Division, 23 February 1999.
[36]Humanitär
Minröjning (Humanitarian Mine Clearance), Memorandum, SRV, 3 November
1998.
[37]A FOA Research Project
for Military Mine Clearance and Humanitarian Demining, Speech by Lena Sarholm,
FOA Weapons and Protection Division, held at a mine clearance hearing in the
Swedish Parliament, 9 December 1998.
[38]Biosensorprojektet,
Memorandum, Biosensor Applications Sweden AB, 11 November 1998.
[39]A FOA Research Project
for Military Mine Clearance and Humanitarian Demining, Speech by Lena Sarholm,
FOA Weapons and Protection Division, held at a mine clearance hearing in the
Swedish Parliament, 9 December 1998.
[40]Speech by Jan Cederlund,
manager, Celsius, held at a mine clearance hearing in the Swedish Parliament, 9
December 1998.
[41]Speech by Allan Carlsson,
Sales Director, Bofors held at a mine clearance hearing in the Swedish
Parliament, 9 December 1998.
[43]Afghanistan-nytt,
(Svenska Afghanistankommittén) 4/98 and telephone interview with Peter
Hjukström, Secretary-General, Swedish Committee for Afghanistan, 21
January 1999.
[44]The facts were gathered
through a questionnaire which was sent out to thirteen of Sweden’s largest
NGOs working with international aid.
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