Key developments since May 2003: The National Mine Action Plan has
been completed and priority areas for clearance updated. Zimbabwe has said that
without increased funding, it will not be able to meet its 2009 mine clearance
deadline. In 2003, ZIMAC reported 26 new mine/UXO casualties, including two
deminers; this is a significant increase from nine casualties reported in 2002.
Key developments since 1999: The Mine Ban Treaty entered into force
for Zimbabwe in March 1999. In January 2001, Zimbabwe enacted The
Anti-Personnel Mines (Prohibition) Act, 2000. In November 2000, Zimbabwe
destroyed its stockpile of 4,092 antipersonnel mines, retaining 700 mines for
training purposes. Zimbabwe served as co-rapporteur, then co-chair, of the
Standing Committee on General Status and Operation of the Convention from May
1999 to September 2001. Zimbabwe strongly denied allegations of use of
antipersonnel mines by its forces deployed in the DR Congo, and rejected
concerns about possible “assistance” to other forces using mines.
Major mine clearance operations started in March 1999. Zimbabwe reports that
by the end of 2003, 221,020 antipersonnel landmines had been cleared from three
of Zimbabwe’s seven identified contaminated areas. In 2002, a National
Authority on Mine Action was established to formulate a national mine action
plan, and the Zimbabwe Mine Action Center was formed to coordinate all mine
action in the country. Mine risk education has been carried out in the country
since 1998. Between 1999 and 2002, 31 mine/UXO casualties were reported;
another 26 were reported in 2003.
Mine Ban Policy
Zimbabwe signed the Mine Ban Treaty on 3 December 1997, ratified on 18 June
1998, and the treaty entered into force on 1 March 1999. Zimbabwe was one of
the nine African States attending the October 1996 meeting in Canada that
launched the Ottawa Process. On 15 May 1997, Zimbabwe announced a unilateral
ban on antipersonnel mines.[1]
Zimbabwe enacted “The Anti-Personnel Mines (Prohibition) Act 2000”
in January 2001. The act incorporates the Mine Ban Treaty into Zimbabwe’s
domestic law.[2] The ICBL
expressed concern about a provision in the Act relating to joint military
operations with a country not party to the Mine Ban Treaty (see
below).[3]
Zimbabwe submitted its Article 7 report for calendar year 2003 on 1 December
2003. This was its fourth Article 7
report.[4]
Zimbabwe has attended all of the annual Meetings of States Parties and the
intersessional meetings. At the First Meeting of States Parties in May 1999,
Zimbabwe became co-rapporteur of the Standing Committee on the General Status
and Operation of the Convention, and then served as co-chair from September 2000
to September 2001.
Zimbabwe has voted in favor of every pro-ban UN General Assembly resolution
since 1996, including UNGA Resolution 58/53 on 8 December 2003.
Zimbabwe has rarely engaged in the extensive discussions that States Parties
have had on matters if interpretation and implementation related to Articles 1,
2, and 3, and more specifically, the issues of joint military operations with
non-States Parties and the prohibition on “assist,” foreign
stockpiling and transit of antipersonnel mines, antivehicle mines with sensitive
fuzes or antihandling devices, and the acceptable number of mines retained for
training.
However, in May 2002, Zimbabwe made a lengthy statement regarding joint
operations and assistance in prohibited acts. In the context of allegations of
landmine use by many of the fighting forces in the Democratic Republic of Congo,
the ICBL expressed concern that Zimbabwe could be in violation of the treaty by
virtue of participating in a joint military operation with DRC forces that used
antipersonnel mines in that
operation.[5] At the
intersessional Standing Committee meetings in Geneva in May 2002, Zimbabwe
informed States Parties that it would not participate in planning and
implementation of activities related to antipersonnel mine use in joint
operations, and that its troops remained bound by “our domestic laws even
if they are operating beyond our
borders.”[6]
In this context, it should be noted that Zimbabwe’s Anti-Personnel
Mines (Prohibition) Act contains a clause that offers possible legal protection
for a person engaged in military activities with a non-State Party in which
antipersonnel mines are used, transferred or produced, if that person’s
conduct “did not amount to active participation” in any banned
activities.[7] There is no
definition of what constitutes “active participation.”
Production, Transfer, Stockpiling and Use
Zimbabwe was a past producer and exporter of antipersonnel mines, but not a
significant one.[8] Production
of two types of Claymore mines, the Z1 and ZAPS types, ended when Zimbabwe
gained independence in 1980.[9]
Zimbabwe destroyed its stockpile of 4,092 antipersonnel mines in November
2000, retaining 700 mines for training
purposes.[10] Zimbabwe’s
Article 7 Report for 2003 indicated that the number of retained mines has not
changed.
In 2003, a representative of Zimbabwe confirmed to Landmine Monitor that
Claymore-type mines are stockpiled by its armed forces, but without tripwire
actuating fuses, because Zimbabwe considers these illegal under the Mine Ban
Treaty.
Landmine Monitor reported repeated allegations of the use of antipersonnel
landmines by the Zimbabwe Defense Forces in the Democratic Republic of Congo at
least up to 1999. Zimbabwe consistently and strongly denied the
allegations.[11]
Landmine Problem, Survey and Assessment
Mines were used extensively during the liberation war between 1963-1980,
particularly along the borders of Mozambique and Zambia. As of January 2002, 27
percent of known mined areas were reported to have been
cleared.[12] In its 2003
Article 7 report, Zimbabwe indicated about 1.148 million antipersonnel landmines
contaminate six areas.[13]
Zimbabwe summarized the status of its landmine problem at the February 2004
intersessional Standing Committee meetings, stating, “Despite our efforts
in the last two decades, Zimbabwe still has thousands of mines planted in its
territory. The border areas of the country are the most affected. These mines
impact negatively on the Zimbabwean border communities creating social, economic
and psychological problems as well as damaging the family cell. About 30% of
the population is at risk directly or indirectly ... economic development
continues to be hampered due to the continued existence of these minefields, 23
years after the end of the
war.”[14]
In April 2001, Zimbabwe reported that Mine Tech, a commercial company funded
by German Technical Cooperation of Zimbabwe (GTZ), was carrying out a Level 2
Survey of the Malvernia (Sango) to Crooks Corner area (50
kilometers).[15] Mine Tech also
undertook Level 1 and Level 2 Surveys of the sector five border minefield for
the potential three-nation conservation project, encompassing national parks in
Zimbabwe, South Africa and Mozambique. During this operation, about 41,272
square meters of land were surveyed, and 47 antipersonnel mines and 293
PloughShare directional fragmentation mines were
located.[16] The Level 2 Survey
indicated that the mine threat in this area was far greater than had been
initially thought, and a concept plan for clearance was developed by Mine
Tech.[17] No Level 2 surveys
have been conducted in other parts of the country because of financial
constraints.[18]
Coordination and Planning
The National Demining Office (NDO) was established in 1998 with the
assistance of the United States to coordinate, prioritize and integrate all
demining activities in the country. In compliance with the Antipersonnel Mines
Prohibition Act and to fulfill the requirements of the Mine Ban Treaty, in early
2002 a National Authority on Mine Action in Zimbabwe (NAMAZ) was established.
NAMAZ, as the policy-making body, was tasked with the formulation of a National
Mine Action Plan (NMAP).
In addition, the Zimbabwe Mine Action Center (ZIMAC) was created to manage,
coordinate and facilitate all mine action activities in Zimbabwe, in cooperation
with the international community. The NDO, which is an integral part of and
falls under ZIMAC, remains responsible for demining
activities.[19]
Southern African Development Community’s (SADC) database on all
mine-affected countries in the region became operational in 2003, with the main
terminal situated in Mozambique, and Zimbabwe having a sub-regional office
hooked into the database.[20]
The purpose of the database is for countries in the region to be able to share
experiences, advice and information among themselves, and with the international
community, about national and regional mine action
activities.[21]
In February 2004, Zimbabwe reported that the National Mine Action Plan was
completed and the priority areas for clearance set, as follows: complete
clearance of the Victoria Falls to Mlibizi minefield, using the money allocated
by the government in 2004; clear the Sango Border Post to Limpopo minefield, to
enable the Zimbabwe Revenue Authority to open offices in the area, and for the
development of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier National
Park;[22] complete clearance of
the Musengezi to Nyamapanda South (Rwenya) minefield; the Sheba Forest to Beacon
Hill minefield; and the Rusitu to Mutize minefield. Priority for clearance is
based on the need for economic development in agriculture, tourism and
resettlement.[23]
In February 2004, the Director of ZIMAC told Landmine Monitor that if
sufficient funds are not obtained, Zimbabwe will not be able to meet its March
2009 Mine Ban Treaty deadline for mine clearance. At the current rate of
demining activity in Zimbabwe, the time needed to effectively clear remaining
landmines is estimated at 10 to 15
years.[24]
Mine Clearance
The ZDF is the only body still undertaking landmine clearance in Zimbabwe.
Lack of funds from the donor community, in reaction to Zimbabwe’s land
reform program, has hampered progress in demining.
According to Zimbabwe’s December 2003 Article 7 report, by the end of
2003, 221,020 antipersonnel landmines had been cleared from three of
Zimbabwe’s seven identified contaminated
areas.[25] This total includes
the antipersonnel mines destroyed by Koch Mine Safe in the Musengezi to
Nyamapanda South (Rwenya) minefield in 1999 and 2000.
Clearance activities have focused on the Victoria Falls to Mlibizi minefield
since 2001. In 2003, 7,101 mines were destroyed there by the
ZDF.[26] In 2002, Zimbabwe
reported clearing 85 kilometers and destroying 16,000 mines in that
area.[27] At the end of 2000,
80 of the 243 kilometers that constitute this minefield had been
cleared;[28] by December 2003,
there were only 13 kilometers remaining to be
cleared.[29]
By the time Koch Mine Safe’s contract ended in December 2000, with the
termination of European Union (EU) funds, 130 kilometers of the 335
kilometer-long Musengezi to Nyamapanda South (Rwenya) minefield had been
cleared.[30]
In its December 2003 Article 7 report, Zimbabwe outlined the status of the
remaining contaminated areas. It reported 6,600 square meters have been
cleared in Stappleford Forest to Mutare minefield, out of a 50 kilometer-long
area, with an estimated 250,000 antipersonnel landmines remaining; clearance has
not yet begun in Junction Gate to Jersey Tea minefield (75 kilometers/12,960
estimated antipersonnel landmines), Sango to Crooks Corner minefield (50 /
247,600, respectively), and Burma Valley minefield (3/60, respectively); and
clearance of the one kilometer contaminated area around the Kariba Power Station
has reportedly been
completed.[31]
Other Mine Action Activities
While no longer carrying out clearance inside the country, Mine Tech has
completed over 133 international mine action-related
contracts.[32] It began
working in Iraq in May 2003, operating from Basra; as of February 2004, its
contract had been extended by the United
Nations.[33] The company has
also operated in Eritrea, Somaliland, Macedonia and Kosovo, and in April 2002,
undertook an assignment in Lebanon, as part of Operation Emirates
Solidarity.[34]
Southern Africa Demining Services Agency (SADSA), formed in January 2001 and
headquartered in Harare, is a commercial mine clearance and explosive ordnance
disposal company that has been involved in mine clearance on Zimbabwe’s
northeast border. In 2003, SADSA had demining contracts in Croatia and
Lebanon.[35]
In 2002, Landmine Monitor reported that Security Devices had been contracted
by SADC to design and test new mine action equipment. Preliminary tests on the
effectiveness of new types of visors and aprons were carried out at the NDO in
April 2001. In June 2001, secondary tests were carried out in Chimoi,
Mozambique.[36]
Mine Risk Education
The NDO has a Mine Risk Education (MRE) Section to carry out MRE campaigns
throughout the country. The campaigns, which have been running since 1998, are
coordinated with the national army and local authorities, and occur at schools,
business centers, agricultural shows, health centers, and at the annual Zimbabwe
International Trade Fair. Areas targeted for MRE are mostly those that are
adjacent to mined areas, and information is also collected on UXO and mines in
the area during this process. Some minefields are well marked, but in other
areas, minefield markings have either deteriorated or been removed by villagers
for other use. Villagers must then rely on local
knowledge.[37]
Mine risk education continues to be a key priority of ZIMAC, but a lack of
resources has hampered most of its plans. MRE is crucial in Zimbabwe, given the
interest in resettlement by the population, current demining levels, and the
amount of partially cleared land.
The NDO does not have external assessors to appraise the mine risk education
campaigns. Evaluation is done internally by going back to the area to ascertain
whether the pattern of behavior has changed or
not.[38] A former deminer felt
the success and effectiveness of MRE was difficult to evaluate, because of the
different literacy levels and comprehension of the communities, and the fact
that no follow-up tests are carried
out.[39] On the positive side,
according to US officials who attended an MRE campaign activity in Mukumbura in
November 2001, mine risk education in Zimbabwe compared well with that carried
out in Bosnia, Kosovo and elsewhere in the
world.[40]
Mine Action Funding
The government of Zimbabwe has allocated Z$310 million (US$380,060) for
demining in 2004.[41] Although
this appears a significant increase over previous years’ funding, the
value of the Zimbawean dollar has decreased dramatically during the reporting
period. Landmine Monitor has reported that Zimbabwe’s national budget for
mine action Z$40 million (US$760,000) in 2003; Z$10 million (US$190,000) in
2002; and, Z$5 million (US$95,000) in
2001.[42]
Zimbabwe has not received external funds for its mine action programs since
2001. From 1998-2001, the US government provided more than $6 million for mine
action activities in Zimbabwe. An EU grant of $4.086 million to clear the
Mukumbura to Nyamapanda South (Rwenya) minefield was terminated in December
2000, forcing Zimbabwe to redeploy its demining
corps.[43]
Landmine Casualties
In 2003, ZIMAC reported 26 new mine/UXO casualties, including five people
killed and 21 injured. Two of the casualties were deminers injured during
clearance operations in Victoria
Falls.[44] This represents a
significant increase from the nine people reported injured in mine/UXO incidents
in 2002; at least seven casualties were caused by antipersonnel
mines.[45] Between 1999 and
2002, at least two people were killed and 29 injured in reported mine
incidents.[46]
The total number of mine casualties in Zimbabwe is unknown as no
comprehensive records are available, and it is believed many mine incidents have
gone unreported. According to a UN mission to Zimbabwe in November 1999, mine
incidents killed at least 46 people and injured another 210 since 1980.
However, it was estimated that this figure represented only 60 percent of the
total number of casualties during the
period.[47]
In September 2002, a Zimbabwean deminer lost his hand in a mine accident in
south Lebanon.[48] Landmines
have reportedly also killed or injured Zimbabwean military personnel during
peacekeeping missions in Somalia and Angola, and during military operations in
the Democratic Republic of the
Congo.[49]
Survivor Assistance and Disability Policy and Practice
Zimbabwe reportedly has good medical facilities but access is difficult for
mine survivors living in remote areas. Some mine casualties die because of the
time taken to reach a suitably equipped medical facility. Emergency medical
care and a basic prosthesis or crutches are provided free by the government, but
continued or follow up medical care and replacement of artificial limbs is at
the cost of the survivor and their family. Many mine survivors from poor rural
communities do not have the resources to pay for on-going care and
rehabilitation.[50] It was
evident from Landmine Monitor field research that there is little follow-up
assistance available to survivors. A lack of government funds does not allow
for a comprehensive survivor assistance program in Zimbabwe. Assistance for all
persons with disabilities, including landmine survivors, is channeled through
the Social Dimension Fund of the Ministry of Labor and Social
Welfare.[51] There is no single
organization providing assistance to landmine survivors, however, some
activities are implemented through the National Association of Societies for the
Care of the Handicapped
(NASCOH).[52]
In early 2002, the Zimbabwe Mine Action Center established the Victims
Assistance, Rehabilitation, Reintegration and Resettlement Office. The office
is tasked with establishing and maintaining a mine casualty database, and
coordinating activities for the care, rehabilitation and reintegration of mine
survivors.[53] ZIMAC sees the
creation of a comprehensive database on mine survivors as an important step in
the development of programs to address the needs of mine survivors, including
vocational training and the creation of income generation projects. ZIMAC also
wants landmine survivors to form an association to raise awareness on their
needs; however, no outside assistance is currently available to fund any
activities.[54]
Zimbabwe submitted the voluntary Form J attachment with its annual Article 7
Report for 2002 and 2003. Both reports stated that NASCOH was collecting
information nationwide to establish a database but the program was limited due
to a lack of resources.[55]
The 1992 “Disabled Persons Act” protects the rights of persons
with disabilities to such things as rehabilitation and employment, and
established the National Disability Board. However, in practice, the lack of
resources for training and education severely limits access to employment and
other benefits.[56]
[1] Press Statement on Zimbabwe Government
Policy on Antipersonnel Landmines, 15 May 1997. In this unilateral ban, Zimbabwe
said it would not manufacture or import antipersonnel mines, and was ready to
destroy its stockpiles within the next five years, retaining only a few for
training purposes. [2] Article 7
Report, Form A, 1 December 2003. [3]
Landmine Monitor Report 2001, p.
176. [4] Previous submissions included
its initial Article 7 Report on 11 January 2000 (for August 1999 to January
2000), an update on 4 April 2001 (for calendar year 2000), and an update on 13
February 2003 (for calendar year 2002). In 2003, Landmine Monitor reported
receiving a copy of an updated report for calendar year 2001 (dated December
2001) from government officials, but the UN apparently never received it.
Zimbabwe submitted the voluntary Form J attachment with its annual Article 7
Report for 2002 and 2003. [5] Under
Article 1 of the Mine Ban Treaty, a State Party may not “under any
circumstance...assist, encourage or induce, in any way, anyone to engage in any
activity that is prohibited to a State Party under this Convention.”
[6] See Landmine Monitor Report 2002,
p. 532, for more detail on Zimbabwe’s statement. The delegate stated,
“We therefore in our view, believe that the term assist should be
interpreted, relating directly to the activity in question and should not be
applied liberally or given too wide a definition....Active participation...means
actively participating in the carrying, laying and training in the use,
manufacture, distribution, encouraging or inducing someone in the use of APMs.
It is therefore our humble submission that the terms assist and active
participation in the context of Article 1 mean knowingly and intentionally
participating directly or rendering assistance on the use, transfer and/or
production of AP mines.” [7]
Section 5 (3) (a) and (b). [8] For
more information on past production and export, see Landmine Monitor Report
1999, pp. 97-99. [9] Interview with
Col. J. Munongura, Director, Zimbabwe Mine Action Center, Geneva, 4 February
2003. Production and handling of RAP 1 and RAP 2 antipersonnel mines became so
dangerous, that they ceased being made in the last years of the liberation war.
According to the government, production of PloughShare type mines was stopped
sometime between 1990 and 1993. Human Rights Watch Arms Project, Still Killing:
Landmines in Southern Africa, New York, HRW, 1997, p.
165. [10] For details on stocks and
retained mines, see Landmine Monitor Report 2001, p. 177.
[11] Landmine Monitor Report 1999,
pp. 99-100; Landmine Monitor Report 2000, pp. 122-123; Landmine Monitor Report
2001, pp. 177-179. [12] Presentation
on National Demining Operations by Maj. Vengesai, 17 January
2002. [13] The numbers in
Zimbabwe’s Article 7, Form C reports for 2002 and 2003 are inconsistent.
The total “estimated present density” in the 2003 report is given as
859,177, but the individual numbers add up to 1,147,779. Similarly in the 2002
report, the 2002 estimated density was given as 1,166,280, but the actual total
of the numbers given is 1,157,880.
[14] Statement by Zimbabwe, Standing
Committee on Mine Clearance, Mine Risk Education and Mine Action Technologies,
Geneva, 11 February 2004. [15]
Article 7 Report, Form C, 4 April
2001. [16] Mine Tech, at: http://www.minetech.co.uk/Africa.html
. [17] Email from Jody Maine, Mine
Tech International, 12 July 2002. [18]
National Demining Office, "Report on the Area Covered by the Mine Awareness
Section, 1998 –
2001.” [19] Email from Col. J.
Munongwa, Director, ZIMAC, 8 July
2003. [20] Interview with Col. J.
Munongwa, ZIMAC, Harare, 19 February
2004. [21] Email from Col. J.
Munongwa, ZIMAC, 8 July 2003. [22] A
total of US$10 million may be required to demine this 75 kilometer-long
minefield. As reported by Landmine Monitor in 2002, the Great Limpopo
Transfrontier Park covers an area of over 35,000 square
kilometers—extending into South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique—and
is considered by some as the most significant and ambitious conservation project
worldwide. [23] Statement by Zimbabwe,
Standing Committee on Mine Clearance, 11 February
2004. [24] Interview with Col. J.
Munongwa, ZIMAC, 19 February
2004. [25] Breakdown as follows:
162,419 in Musengezi to Nyamapanda South (Rwenya) minefield; 58,101 in Victoria
Falls to Mlibizi minefield; and 500 in Stappleford Forest to Mutare minefield.
[26] Article 7 Report, Form G, 1
December 2003. [27] Article 7 Report,
Forms F and G, 13 February 2003. [28]
Interview with Maj. Ncube, Commanding Officer, Mine Clearance Unit based in
Victoria Falls, 8 February 2001. [29]
Article 7 Report, Forms F and G, 1 December
2003. [30] Article 7 Report, Forms C
and F, 1 December 2003. Landmine Monitor Report 2002, p. 534, said this
constituted clearance of about 6.2 million square meters.
[31] Again, the Article 7 Reports are
not entirely clear. The 2002 Article 7 Report indicted the Kariba Power Station
had an estimated 3,000 antipersonnel mines still to be cleared. In the 2003
Article 7 Report, Kariba Power Station showed no mines remaining, but the report
gave no indication of clearance activity in that area for the year.
[32] Cyril Zenda, “Mine Tech
Earns World Honours,” The Financial Gazette, 3 May
2002. [33] Daily Mirror, 24 February
2004. [34] “Mine Tech,”
The Financial Gazette, 3 May
2002. [35] Interview with Brigadier
General T. Kanganga, Director, Southern Africa Demining Services Agency and
Former Deputy Project Manager, Koch Mine Safe, Harare, 12 February
2003. [36] Interview with Maj. Nhidza
(Retd), Director, Southern African Demining Operations, Harare, 5 February 2002.
Continued research on the effectiveness of the visor was moved to Pretoria,
South Africa, because of a lack of capacity in
Zimbabwe. [37] Interview with Col. J.
Munongwa, National Coordinator and Director of Operations, NDO, Harare, 14 July
2002. [38] Interview with Col. J.
Munongwa, Director, ZIMAC, Harare, 11 February
2003. [39] Interview with Michael
Laban, former deminer with Mine Tech, 1 February
2002. [40] Interview with Chief
Warrant Officer T. Castle, Operations Coordinator, and Capt. T. Cook, Foreign
Area Officer, US Embassy, Harare, 5 February
2002. [41] Interview with Col. J.
Munongwa, ZIMAC, 19 February 2004. (Above conversion is based on 1 January 2004
rate; 1 February rate equaled US$376,068; and 1 April rate, US$72,479; www.oanda.com .)
[42] Landmine Monitor Report 2003, p.
504. [43] Landmine Monitor Report
2001, p. 180; Landmine Monitor Report 2002, pp. 532-533; Landmine Monitor Report
2003, p. 504. For information about mine action funding pre-1998, see Landmine
Monitor Report 199, pp. 103-105. [44]
Interview with Col. J. Munongwa, ZIMAC, 19 February
2004. [45] For details see Landmine
Monitor Report 2003, p. 506. [46] For
details see Landmine Monitor Report 2002, p. 536; Landmine Monitor Report 2001,
pp. 181-182; Landmine Monitor Report 2000, p. 127; and Landmine Monitor Report
1999, p. 109. [47] UNMAS, “Joint
Assessment Mission: Zimbabwe,” 15 February 2000, p.
8. [48] “African mine-clearer
loses hand in explosion in south Lebanon,” Associated Press, 21 September
2002. [49] Landmine Monitor Report
1999, p. 109. [50] Presentation by
Zimbabwe, Standing Committee on Victim Assistance and Socio-Economic
Reintegration, Geneva, 10 February,
2004. [51] Landmine Monitor Report
2002, p. 536; Landmine Monitor Report 2001, p.
182. [52] Interviews with Farai
Mukuta, Director, National Association of Societies for the Care of the
Handicapped, Harare, 6 and 13 February
2003. [53] Email from Colonel
Munongwa, ZIMAC, 8 July 2003. [54]
Zimbabwe, presentation to the Standing Committee on Victim Assistance and
Socio-Economic Reintegration, Geneva, 10 February,
2004. [55] Article 7 Report, Form J, 1
December 2003; Article 7 Report, Form J, 13 February
2003. [56] “Disabled Persons
Act” 1992; see also Landmine Monitor Report 2001, p. 182.
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